In the following we present the policy contexts for a selection of five eco2adapt living labs. Each living lab depiction is structured along the same dimensions:
- i) General context on climate change adaptation;
- ii) Horizontal and vertical coordination of climate change adaptation;
- iii) The role of forests in climate change adaptation;
- iv) Climate change adaptation of forests;
- v) Regional strategies.
DESCRIPTION OF POLICY CONTEXTS FOR THE LIVING LABS ACROSS DIFFERENT LEVELS
Many European states began their elaboration of strategies and plans prior to or in parallel with the process at EU level. Thus, there has been a significant cross-fertilisation of strategies and plans between the European and state levels. While all strategies and plans follow a similar set-up and rationale, the procedures for elaboration and actual content vary significantly. In the following the elaboration of plans and strategies is presented for national levels and where applicable for sub-national levels. The respective chapters are structured equally. First, we give an overview on national climate adaptation policies and their coordination. Second, we highlight the role of forests in climate change adaptation policies and mirror it to how forests themselves are envisioned to be adapted. Third, we present these aspects with relation to the local level of the living labs. Please note that the elaboration of climate adaptation strategies and policies has been very dynamic in the last year. Thus, we could only include first of all those, that were published before our sampling ended mid-2023.
From all eco2adapt living labs, we focused on five case studies. The selection was necessary to guarantee the feasibility of the policy analysis. Living labs were selected according to the accessibility of policy documents and a broad presentation of different political settings. Here, we focus on policies relating to climate change adaptation and the adaptation of forests. For a more general description of the living labs, follow this link.
The federal or devolved status of most of the states influenced the relation especially between the national plans and strategies and lower levels. Nonetheless, this was somewhat moderated by the fact that most national plans and strategies are providing a frame that is filled or concretized by plans and strategies at lower levels. The relation is especially loose when significant competencies rest with sub-national decision-making, as is often the case for forest policy. A number of sub-national entities followed the plans from the national level closely regarding the structure (e.g. Switzerland) whereas in Germany the federal plans and strategies are very clearly focused on actions at national level or on issues for which a decision-making mandate exists. Additionally, many federal states in Germany did develop their strategies / plans prior to the national level, which increases the diversity of procedures and content.
At times, for example in France, the structure of regional plans was prescribed rather strictly through legislation, whereas in other countries, e.g. Germany, the sub-national authorities could opt for establishing integrated plans, sectoral plans, or separate plans and the intervals for reviewing the plans and strategies.
FINLAND
In Finland, a National Adaptation Strategy (NAS) was adopted in 2005, as an independent element of the wider National Energy and Climate Strategy. The evaluation process resulted in a government resolution and publication of a new national climate adaptation framework in November 2014, known as the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2022 (NAP). Finland's Climate Act (approved on 6 March 2015) stipulates that the Government approves long-term and medium-term strategic mitigation plans and that it will rewrite the national plan on adaptation at least every ten years. The Government approved the latest National Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2030 in December 2022. The implementation started in spring 2023. The National Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2030 presents a climate change risk and vulnerability assessment and sets out the vision and three goals for adaptation work. The goals are specified in more detail through 24 targets that are grouped under ten themes and implemented by means of the actions presented in the plan. The aim is also to develop a monitoring system to assess the progress and effectiveness of the actions
Finland adopted its first National Adaptation Strategy in 2005. Since then, implementation of national adaptation policy is organized sectorally and coordinated through a cross-sectoral working group steered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. The National Climate Change Adaptation Plan was prepared by a coordination group appointed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, with representatives from the Prime Minister’s Office and the relevant ministries (e.g. Ministry of Environment, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Education and Culture, Ministry of Economy and Employment, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health), research institutes (Finnish Meteorological Institute; Finnish Environment Institute and the Natural Resources Institute) and regional actors (ELY, Municipalities). In 2017, the group was updated with new expert organizations in fire and rescue services, and financial services. If required, experts from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Defense and from other organizations participate in the meetings.
The vertical coordination mechanisms within the governance system are in place and regional actors participated in the drafting of the NAP. Representatives of municipalities (the Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities) and the Helsinki Metropolitan Region are also included in the coordination group. In addition, a significant share of the practical adaptation measures is taking place in the regions or at local level. The NAP also includes a key measure of promoting local and regional adaptation studies.
“In Finland, adaptation has primarily been governed through soft policy instruments and has not resulted in any corresponding requirements for e.g., developing adaptation plans at the municipal level. Finland’s National Adaptation Strategy, published as early as 2005, proposed adaptation action on a sectoral basis but was not coupled to implementation requirements. The Strategy was considered to provide little guidance for local adaptation. In addition, the […] National Adaptation Plan for Climate Change 2022 stresses the sectoral and individual responsibility for adaptation, while the state’s role is restricted to safeguarding society’s most central functions and the provision of expertise. The Finnish Climate Act, passed in 2015 (HE 82/2014) steers the government in the preparation of a national plan for adaptation and has details on the reporting. However, it does not have influence on the local adaptation, nor measures to steer it. So far, despite not being compelled in a legally binding sense to do so, some municipalities have developed adaptation strategies or have addressed mitigation and adaptation in a common strategy. All of these strategies also remain soft instruments, since their implementation is not compulsory, nor is the non-implementation of the strategy penalized by sanctions or the withdrawal of rights” (Keskitalo et al. 2016, p. 5). These findings by Keskitalo et al. (2016) have not been altered by the new adaptation plan from 2022.
Nature-based Solutions gained a more prominent role in the 2022 adaptation plan. The concept was mentioned in a number of objectives and was assigned an own objective complemented by two actions:
- “Objective 12: Nature-based solutions: Nature-based solutions have become much more prominent in adaptation planning in recent years, but they are not yet widely adopted. Finland has good conditions for increasing the use of nature-based solutions in areas such as land use planning, stormwater management, urban development and water management in agriculture and forestry. For example, climate change will increase peripheral water situations, which will challenge soil functionality and thus water management in agriculture and forestry, but existing or properly implemented wetlands and natural areas help to regulate the water cycle.
- Action 12.1 Developing nature-based solutions and up-to-date legislation and guidance material and promote planning for stormwater management.
- Action 12.2 Mainstream organic water management practices in agriculture and forestry” (NAP 2022, p. 66).
The role of forests is explicitly mentioned in three targets of the National Adaptation Strategy 2030:
- Target 10: Climate Change Adaptation is promoted in the use of renewable resources by 2030
- Forest vitality, biodiversity and adaptive capacities of forest should be improved so that forests can contribute to the provision of renewable energy.
- Target 11: Adaptation to climate change and halting biodiversity loss are tackled together by 2030
- With regard to this target, the role of forests as a host of biodiversity is amongst others highlighted through programs such as the Forest Biodiversity Program Southern Finland (METSO)
- Target 12: Nature-based-solutions are established and have increased society’s preparedness for climate risks, improved water protection and increased biodiversity by 2030
- Within this target, forests are especially mentioned in their function to retain water and nutrients.
More generally, the NAP 2030 refers to the forests’ contribution to the Finish economy and well-being. Forests are mainly depicted in a generally good state of health, while being confronted with increasing risks of fire and pests. Yet, it is also stressed that climate change has led to an acceleration of growth rates that increased the productivity and climate mitigation potential of forests. As climate change adaptation is organized sectorally in Finland, more specific adaptation strategies and function of forests are provided in the sectoral strategies.
The key policy instruments to promote climate adaptation are sectoral plans that detail the specific measures for mainstreaming adaptation into sectoral activities and planning processes. Action Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (currently, as of January 2024, updated). The Action Plan for the Adaptation to Climate Change of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry 2011–2015 - Security of Supply, Sustainable Competitiveness and Risk Management came out in spring 2011. The aim was to integrate adaptation in the regular planning and implementation processes of the ministry. The action plan specifies measures concerning agriculture, forestry, fisheries, game management, rural policy and water management. Key measures relate to emergency supplies and risk management, plant and animal health, preparing for forest damages, plant breeding, flood risk management, and protection of forest biodiversity and waters. Research and development work as well as communication are also important in promoting climate change adaptation.
The objectives of the National Forest Strategy 2025 (launched in 2015 and updated in 2019 replacing the National Forest Program) include “increasingly diverse sustainable forest management supports climate mitigation and adaptation”. Recent modifications to forest legislation in 2014, i.e. to the Forest Act 5 and the Forest Damages Prevention Act 6, take into account climate adaptation by allowing more diverse forest management and reduced length of timber harvesting cycles in response to pests. In addition, Finland’s National Forest Strategy 2025 contains adaptation-related measures. The Forest Tree Breeding Programme 2050 (2008) includes a target for selection of suitable stock for reforestation that takes account of climate change. The use of high-quality seed, suitable for different climatic conditions, is promoted by the establishment of new seed orchards. New maps that take into account climate projections were released in 2017 for deployment of improved seeds and seedlings of pine and are under preparation for spruce. In addition, there is a program for establishing a network of genetic forest reserves. The Finnish Forest Centre’s forest damage contingency plan uses appointed regional experts to assist with rapid harvesting of wind-damaged trees in order to prevent consequential damage. Planning of forest-road maintenance has been developed to take into account exceptional weather and soil conditions.
“The National Forest Strategy 2025 is a key instrument for implementing adaptation actions in Finland. Adaptation actions in the forest sector are based on analyses of climate change risks and vulnerabilities of forests, forestry and other natural resource sectors. Some aspects of adaptation are legally enforced as well as financially and institutionally supported. A variety of approaches, including close-to-nature forestry and intensification of management are applied” (Forest Europe 2020, p. 22).
However, no individual objective for adaptation is defined in the Forest Strategy. Adaptation is mentioned in Chapter 2 (operating environment for forest-based business and activities is undergoing a transformation) under section 2.7 Climate change mitigation and adaptation to be emphasized in forest-based business and activities. Nonetheless, most of the descriptions in this section focus on mitigation.
Objectives are subsumed in Chapter 3 “Strategic objectives, targets and indicators” section “3.3.2 Forest biodiversity and ecological, social and cultural sustainability are reinforced”. Again, a focus rests on mitigation. E.g.: “The aim of climate change mitigation is to limit the change as much as possible. Climate change adaptation aims at predicting and solving problems caused by climate change. Finland’s forests play an important role in climate change mitigation and adaptation. Finland has committed to the objectives indicated in the Paris Climate Treaty. The land use sector is part of the EU’s climate and energy policy that will continue until 2030 which dictates that the minimum target for emissions cuts is 40 per cent. These objectives form the framework in which forests will be linked more closely than before to climate change mitigation and adaptation [...] Active forest management will also maintain the forests’ health and ability to grow, which is also the basic precondition for a commercial forest’s capacity to bind carbon […] Climate change mitigation and adaptation are supported by diversifying forest management. Forest management methods must be adapted to new and changing climate conditions including the climate’s impacts on soil. This will allow us to exploit the predicted positive impacts of climate change while minimising the risks associated with it. The impacts of forest management methods on greenhouse gas emissions must be determined and taken into account when deciding on a management method. Domestic forest trees can adapt to the changing climate slowly over time. Adaptation can be sped up with selective breeding and the yield of forests can be guaranteed in the future. This will require effective testing in environments that are as different from one another as possible and the effective selection to find and utilise individuals that are as genetically stable as possible and will adapt to the future climate as well as possible in the production of forest cultivation materials.”
Accordingly, none of the objectives and targets, indicators defined in the chapter refer clearly to adaptation.
“Objectives:
- The decline of forest biodiversity will be halted by 2020 and a favourable status of forest biodiversity will have been secured by 2050.
- Impacts to waters caused by forestry will have been minimised by using the best available practices.
- Increasingly diverse sustainable forest management will support climate change mitigation and adaptation.
- The recreational use and health-promoting impacts of forests will increase and forests are accessible to all.
- The use of forests, the forest environment and forest culture will be valued more than previously.”
The new Forest Strategy 2035 (2023) outlines in much greater detail the implications from climate change for the forest sector. “The three most significant global risks identified are related to environmental factors. They are failure of mitigation and adaptation measures, intensification of extreme weather events and loss of biodiversity […]. The adverse impacts of climate change can be prevented, but this will require rapid action to move towards a carbon neutral society. As even effective mitigation measures have a delayed impact, adaptation measures are also needed.” (p. 11)
One of the goals included in the Forest Strategy 2035 aims at “strengthening the vitality of forests, diversity and adaptability”. It includes “ensuring the diversity and diversity of forests […], the health and resilience of forests and wildlife [and] Adaptation to climate change and general risk management, such as water and soil protection”.
The following objectives are linked to this goal:
“- To put the biodiversity development of commercial forests on the road to recovery.
- Strengthen the climate resilience of forests and manage peatland risks.
- Managing environmental risks from forestry” (p.22).
Asides from this direct reference, adaptation is mentioned under forestry processes and peatlands.
While this shows a clear change of urgency in wording between 2019 and 2023, the integration of climate change adaptation processes in the forest sector appears to be still very weak and there is no clearly defined link to or differentiation with other policy processes (e.g. the sectoral climate change adaptation plan). Furthermore, the perceptions of the effects of climate change seem to be not only negative. A number of positive effects are mentioned, that might strengthen the growth potential of forests (by a prolongation of the growing season), the diversification of products (through the potential incorporation of new tree species). These issues are presented as chances for the forest-based economy and sector to increase economic competitiveness.
North Karelia is a province of Finland and the easternmost region of continental Europe with a population of 162,500 inhabitants. The total area is 23,000 km2 of which 70% are forests.
In Finland and North-Karelian forestry is characterized by its high percentage of private, non-commercial ownership (52%) (Forest Centre PK 2010; METLA 2010), this share is even higher when it comes to productive forests (60% in Finland) and the share of final felling (77%) (METLA 2010). In comparison there is only 9% of Finnish forests owned by companies and 35% owned by the state (of which 26% are productive forests). In North-Karelia 23% of the forests are company owned, in particular due to Tornator Oy (Tornator) an affiliated company of the global forest product company Stora Enso (Forest Centre PK 2010). State ownership is with 20% lower in North-Karelia than in the Finland in general.
“Finland has 13 forestry districts and regional Forestry Centres, North-Karelia being one. Aside preparing the regional forestry programme the Forestry Centres have several tasks concerning private owned forests: preparation of 10 year management plans for private forest owners and their holdings, and distribution of information, support for forest management, subsidies and education for forest owners and professionals. Additionally, by approving forest use declarations prior to loggings and carrying-out follow-up evaluations in chosen harvesting sites, Forest Centres are the responsible institutions for supervising the implementation of the Finnish Forest Act (Forest Centre 2011). Hence, they strongly guide and influence forest management in Finland. […]
Other important actors are the Forest Management Associations (FMA) and the Forest Owners Union (FOU). The FMA has legislative rights to collect a forest management fee, private forest owners are automatically members of the FMA (FMA 2011a). The FMA supports forest owners in terms of planning, education and timber sale. Harvesting and management plans are developed and tenders for logging rights are offered by power of attorney. […] The FOU, on the other hand, is mainly concerned with broader organizational aspects and supports cooperation among local FMAs. Additionally, the FOU holds and administers the regional PEFC certificate for its forestry district. In North-Karelia, compared to most other forestry districts, the FMA and the FOU are one entity separated only on paper. […]
Company forests are less embedded into this structured system. While being obliged to prepare forest use declarations to Forest Centres the same as private forest owners, follow-up checks are carried out by the Forest Development Centre Tapio (Tapio) in most cases. Management planning is carried-out by their own staff while the marking of logging sites is mostly performed by the respective buyers’ personnel. In the case of Tornator, up to 90% of logging rights are sold to Stora Enso which hires contractors to carry-out logging activities. With respect to state owned forests, most responsibilities and duties rest with the State Forestry Service Metsähallitus. The large majority of protected areas are situated in state-owned forest (METLA 2010).” (Albrecht, 2012; p. 5-6).
Forest-bioeconomy is an essential theme in the application of the North Karelian Smart Specialisation Strategy (Regional Council of North Karelia, 2018). It is based on more innovative utilisation of forest resources, highlighted in the North Karelian Smart Forest Bioeconomy Strategy of 2020 (BIO4ECO & Regional Council of North Karelia, 2020). In this strategy, forest bioeconomy covers the following:
- forest bioenergy,
- decentralised biorefinement and wood materials,
- forest technology and the logistics of wood procurement,
- bioinformation economy,
- sustainable multiuse of forests and nature
Forests also play an important role regarding climate change mitigation in the North Karelian Climate and Energy Programme 2020.
The Climate and Energy Programme sets the following targets to be achieved no later than 2030 (Regional Council of North Karelia, 2022):
- North Karelia is a region full of life with a population full of well-being.
- Biodiversity is safeguarded in all activities.
- Energy is low-emission, produced in the region and comes from local natural resources.
- Climate-sustainable construction and housing are enabled in both urban and rural areas.
- The region’s natural resources are used in a sustainable and climate resilient manner, enabling diverse business operations.
- Expertise and research data in the region are transferred to operators in a flexible way. North Karelia is an inclusive local society allowing for the active participation of its residents and communities.
- Greenhouse gas emissions in the region have decreased by 80 % between 2007 and 2030.
The program has been prepared through broad cooperation between actors in the region. The process is perceived to be inclusive, ensuring consideration of different perspectives. As central themes the program highlights peatlands, biodiversity, sustainable use of forests and global responsibility.
- Albrecht, M. (2012): Perceiving sustainable forest spaces: governance aspects of private and company owned forests in North-Karelia, Finland. In: Fennia190: 1, pp. 3–18. Online: https://fennia.journal.fi/article/view/4444/5504
- BIO4ECO & Regional Council of North Karelia (2020): North Karelian Smart Forest Bioeconomy Strategy of 2020. Online: https://projects2014-2020.interregeurope.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_tevprojects/library/file_1539767691.pdf
- Finish Government (2024): Government Report on Finland’s National Climate Change Adaptation Plan until 2023. Wellbeing, Safety and Security in a Changing Climate. Online: https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/165528/VN_2024_11.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
- Finish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (2014): Finland’s National Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2022. Government Resolution 20 November 2014. Online: https://mmm.fi/documents/1410837/5120838/MMM-_193086-v1-Finland_s_National_climate_Change_Adaptation_Plan_2022.pdf/582041ee-3518-4a63-bf60-7133aed95a9c/MMM-_193086-v1-Finland_s_National_climate_Change_Adaptation_Plan_2022.pdf.pdf
- Finish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (2019): The National Forest Strategy 2035 – updated version. Government Resolution 21 February 2019. Online: https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/161739/MMM_17_2019_National%20Forest%20Strategy%202025%20final_.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
- Finish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (2023): The National Forest Strategy 2035. Online: https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/165271/MMM_2023_24.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
- Finish Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (2024): Climate Change Adaptation Action Plan for the Ministry of Agriculture and forestry until 2017. Risk Management and Competitiveness in a Changing Climate Online: https://julkaisut.valtioneuvosto.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/165801/MMM_2024_24.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
- Forest Europe (2020): Adaptation to Climate Change in Sustainable Management in Europe. Online: https://foresteurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/Adaptation_to_Climate_Change_in_SFM_in_Europe.pdf
- Keskitalo, E.C.H., Juhola, S., Baron, N., Fyhn, H., Klein, J. (2016). Implementing Local Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation Actions: The Role of Various Policy Instruments in a Multi-Level Governance Context. Climate 4(7).
- Regional Council of North Karelia (2022): North Karelia Climate and Energy Programme. Online: https://pohjois-karjala.fi/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/North-Karelia-Climate-and-energy-programme-2030-A4.pdf
- Regional Council of North Karelia (2018): Smart Specialisation in North Karelia. Online: https://projects2014-2020.interregeurope.eu/fileadmin/user_upload/tx_tevprojects/library/file_1579696788.pdf
FRANCE
A National Adaptation Strategy, NAS (Stratégie nationale d’adaptation au changement climatique), was adopted already in December 2006. The procedure for a revision of the NAS was launched with the publication in November 2015 of an evaluation report. This was in turn incorporated into a wider set of also structural recommendations for action in 2016. At the same time, the decision was taken to revise the National Adaptation Plan 2011-2015, NAP (). The first NAP was adopted in 2011 and comprised a range of actions and complementary implementation processes, covering a wide range of sectors. The NAP was developed in coordination with stakeholders. The decision to develop a new NAP was formally announced in the National Climate Plan (Plan Climat), published in July 2017 and the new NAP was adopted in 2018. A third National Adaptation Plan is planned for 2025.
In France, the Ministry for Ecological and Inclusive Transition (Ministère de la Transition Écologique et Solidaire) is responsible for policy processes related to climate adaptation. One of the directorates of the ministry is the General Directorate on Energy and Climate, which designs and enforces policies on climate change mitigation and adaptation. Within the General Directorate, the ONERC (Observatoire National sur les Effets du Réchauffement Climatique), which was established in 2001, is responsible for adaptation policy-making. Until recently, there was no specific horizontal governance structure for adaptation in France, although a clear division of responsibilities was identified in the first NAP, and relevant sectoral ministries were involved in its development. Actions were listed in the first NAP according to different sectors, such as agriculture, the forestry sector, fishery, aquaculture, the energy sector, industry, the transport sector, infrastructure, buildings and tourism.
Sectoral departments were then in charge of implementing measures in their area of competence while ONERC ensured overall implementation monitoring; ONERC fulfilled this role, reviewing activity at sectoral level. Every action committed in the NAP identified the leading actors and partners to be considered for implementing each action. The NAP contained a set of identified cross-cutting actions, where many sectoral ministries were involved. More specific sectoral actions also involved several sectoral ministries, where relevant.
This governance system has been reinforced in the process of developing the revised NAP. A specialised Committee of the National Commission for Ecological Transition (CNTE) has been established to guide the actions of ONERC and will also be in charge of the regular monitoring (three times a year) of the future NAP.
Regional planning is led by the regional assemblies and local state representatives. Local adaptation planning is led by the local councils. There has been some vertical integration with regard to climate adaptation through the development of SRCAE (Les Schémas Régionaux Climat Air Énergie) and the PCAET (The Territorial Climate-Air-Energy Plan - Le Plan Climat-Air-Énergie Territorial). The requirement to establish SRCAE was formally adopted in 2010 by the Grenelle II law. The plans were drawn up in collaboration between the state and the region, and include climate and energy goals, with a requirement for a section on climate adaptation. Since 2016, the duty to develop an SRCAE was replaced by a new requirement for regions to adopt a Regional Plan for Sustainable Development and Territorial Equality (Schéma Regional d'Aménagement, de Développement Durable et d'Égalité des Territoires - SRADDET).
To implement the SRCAE at a more local level, PCAET were developed. PCAET’s were defined by the NAP and integrated into the Grenelle laws. They were required for territories of more than 50,000 inhabitants and could (at the choice of the region) be combined with the SRCAE. The territories are required to integrate adaptation measures in their territorial policies. Climate change mitigation and adaptation are also integrated in the Local Urbanisation Plans and the Territorial Coherence Schemes.
The process for local and regional governments to influence national policy-making is less detailed; however, the Grenelle consultation process, which prepared the first NAP, involved close engagement of local and regional authorities as one of five “colleges” (NGOs; state; employers; employees; territorial collectivities). The Ministry for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition has provided for the involvement of local and regional authorities in developing the revision process of the NAP, and in particular has called for the regional economic, social and environmental councils (Conseils Économiques, Sociaux et Environnementaux Régionaux) to be closely associated with the new NAP.
Three overarching objectives and fields of actions with regard to the adaptation of forests were included in the second NAP from 2018. These are
- a) Protection against the risks of catastrophes linked to climate change conditions, field of actions: Prevention and resilience;
- b) Strengthen the resilience of ecosystems to allow for an adaptation to a changing climate and support through ecosystem capacities (services) the social adaptation to a changing climate, field of actions: Nature and environment;
- c) Strengthen the resilience of economic activities to the evolution of climate change, field of actions: economic branches. The different elaborations of the objectives clearly indicate the main adaptation concerns with regard to forests. In France these were linked to forest fires, drought events and limited (ecological and economic) resilience of forest ecosystems.
The plan is also expanding on the first NAP from 2011 that focused on the expansion of research and knowledge with regard to forest adaptation and collection and dissemination of environmental data.
a) “Protection against the risks of catastrophes linked to climate change conditions, field of actions: Prevention and resilience”
- The actions to be taken are part of the tools for prevention and territorial transformation, with important interfaces with biodiversity and economic sector issues. The state and public institutions through the Office National des Forêts (ONF) should engage in mobilising the set of actors regarding forests, notably the competent territorial collectives, to adapt forest management progressively to the expected increase of risks of fires in terms of their frequency and the concerned surfaces (Action P&R-1) in the home land as well as oversee territories.
- A coherence should be maintained of the potential decrease in the adaption of forest management policies or forest conservation and the valorisation and reuse of forest and biomass. The aim is to help reduce the risk of fire and increase resilience in the face of this risk, as the fires have a very negative effect on the carbon balance of forests and the ecosystem resilience. The adaptation to increasing cases of fires and the extension of zones conducive to fires shall be supported by the following measures:
- “to follow the elaboration of regional and territorial strategies to prevent the risk of forest fires, integrating this risk into land-use planning in order to put in place appropriate prevention tools, in conjunction with urban planning documents drawn up by local elected representatives;
- the determination of sensitive zones for an increase of fire incidences through modelling the relations between fires and climate, including a reflection of the interfaces “habitats-forest” and agriculture;
- the support of the establishment of protection plans and the prevention of decline of the adaptation scale;
- the evaluation of the intensity of fires, the damage caused to forests and the vulnerability of interface buildings to wildfire;
- Suggesting species, local if possible, that are better adapted to forest sites and more resilient to fire, as well as landscape management methods that limit the spread of fire, particularly when restoring forest areas after fires;
- increasing surveillance and rescue resources and fire brigade protection resources in the areas currently concerned, increasing potential intervention zones to the north and strengthening the pooling of surveillance and rescue resources at European level;
- to sensibilize the citizens, especially with respect to the legal obligations of removing brushes”
b) Strengthen the resilience of ecosystems to allow for an adaptation to a changing climate and support through ecosystem capacities (services) the social adaptation to a changing climate, field of actions: Nature and environment
- The resilience of forests is a simultaneous environmental, social and economic challenge, which aims at ecosystem preservation, sequestration of atmospheric carbon, wood production and recreational use of forests.
- The Ministry of Ecological Transition (MTES) and the ministry of agriculture and alimentation (MAA) support sustainable forest management taking into account the evolution of local climate parameters, the impacts these have and the studies of vulnerability, and give the forests the maximum chances to develop and to be maintained in the long term. The whole palette of diversification of silviculture, from free evolution to active management, will be used in light of the expertise and prospective to assure genetic diversity in the long term and preserve future options (Action NAT-5)
c) Strengthen the resilience of economic activities to the evolution of climate change, field of actions: economic branches
- "Despite advanced awareness, there is still a need for forward-looking studies to develop the forestry and timber industry and its outlets, in order to ensure the economic renewal and adaptation of forests while preserving biodiversity and ecosystems. In particular, the sector will need to build a joint adaptation and mitigation strategy for forests and the sector, consistent with the measures identified in the national forest and wood programme and the wood sector contract. Knowledge useful for adapting to climate change will be strengthened (Action ECO-8) by higher education and research establishments and other State operators such as the ONF, the Centre national de la propriété forestière [National Forest Property Centre], the Institut pour le développement forestier [Forestry development institute], the Institut technologique forêt cellulose bois-construction ameublement [Forest Cellulose Wood Construction Furnishings Technological Institute], the Institut national de l'information géographique et forestière [National Institute for Geographic and Forestry Information], under the impetus of the MAA in order to carry out, in cooperation with the MTES, territorial prospective studies for the 2050 and 2100 horizons on forest resources in a context of climate change, in conjunction with the Regional Programme of forest and wood (PRFB), the PCAET, local forestry development strategies and regional biomass mobilisation plans, in order to develop the sector's responses to the increase in demand for materials and energy for the low-carbon transition (Action ECO-9).”
The adaptation of forests to climate change is mainly described in the Plan France Relaunch (Plan France Relance). The plan, elaborated by various actor of the wood and forest sector, was launched in 2020 and aims to ensure the economic, ecological and social functions of forests under climate change. Nine priorities were set to attain this goal:
- Strengthening scientific cooperation and knowledge for the adaptation forests and the forestry-wood industry to climate change
- Disseminate and appropriate the knowledge acquired, develop and centralize diagnostic and decision-making tools for adaptation to climate risks.
- Promoting silvicultural practices that increase resilience, reduce risk and limit the impact of crises
- Mobilize financial tools to enable owners to invest in adapting their forests
- Strengthen health surveillance and monitoring, organize crisis management
- Strengthen and extend systems for preventing and combating abiotic hazards, particularly fire-fighting (DFCI)
- Prepare and support the adaptation of the upstream part of the industry, by developing extended industry solidarity to be able to prepare future forest resources.
- Prepare and support the adaptation of companies downstream of the industry
- Strengthen dialogue and consultation, develop leadership and mediation between players within territories
At the regional level, all of the 26 (one per region) Regional Frameworks on Climate, Air and Energy (SRCAEs) have been approved, covering 100% of the French population. The SRCAE requirements include detailed information on planned mitigation, air quality and adaptation actions and measures. The section on adaptation measures in each Regional Framework is adapted to the regional context.
The Schéma Régional du Climat, de l’Air et de l’Énergie (SRCAE) d’Aquitaine was elaborated and adopted by the Council of the state on 15 November 2012.
In applying the law of the new territorial organisation of the République on 7 August 2015, the « schéma régional d’aménagement, de développement durable et d’égalité des territoires » (SRADDET) substituted earlier regional-sectoral schemes (schéma régional d’aménagement et de développement durable du territoire, schéma régional de l’intermodalité, schéma régional de cohérence écologique, schéma régional climat air énergie) and integrated regional waste management. Drawn up under the responsibility of the Regional Council, the SRADDET was adopted on 16 December 2019 by the Regional Assembly and approved on 27 March 2020 by the Regional Prefect.
The topic of adaptation to climate change requires a detailed analysis of the territorial vulnerability. The three fixed generic orientations follow the need to develop and disseminate relevant knowledge: establish a regional governance, specify regional vulnerabilities and define adaptation strategies (Préfet de la region Nouvelle-Aquitaine, 2017).
The SRADDET set objectives relating to climate, air and energy focusing on the following:
- The attenuation of climate change, through limiting of emissions;
- The adaptation to climate change;
- The fight against atmospheric pollution;
- Controlling energy consumption, both primary and final, in particular through energy renovation; a regional energy efficiency programme (PREE) must set out the energy renovation targets set by the SRADDET, defining the terms of public action in terms of guidance and support for private owners, lessors and occupants in carrying out energy renovation work on their homes or private premises used for tertiary purposes;
- The development of renewable energies and circular-economy energy provision.
These objectives are fixed to the horizons 2021 and 2026 and long-term horizons 2030 and 2050. They must be taken into account in lower-level planning documents, in particular territorial climate, air and energy plans. The adaptation of forests and forest resources to climate change are mentioned under objective 2 as a priority.
In addition, the SRADDET set out rules that are binding on planning documents on the basis of compatibility. A body of eleven rules derives directly from the climate, air and energy section.
Forests are addressed specifically in these strategies and plans. The SRADDET contains 80 objectives of which four target forests directly, though not all with a clear focus on adaptation:
- Goal 5: Enhance the value of wood resources and multifunctional management of forests;
- Goal 39: Protect and develop agricultural and forestry land and forestry;
- Goal 52: Developing the resource and use of wood from sustainably managed forests while respecting the hierarchy of uses (timber and industrial wood);
- Goal 61: Strengthening the protection of forest resources forestry resources against the various risks by climate change). Most specifically objective 61 addresses forest adaptation. It is stated that: “The SRADDET sets an objective aimed at strengthening protection of forests against risks with a twofold ambition:
- On the one hand, to develop sustainable coordinated risk prevention by anticipating potential changes as a result of climate change and the long time span of forest management (at least several decades);
- On the other hand, controlling and limiting the spread of urbanisation, as fires are a major factor of major accidents for human populations and socio-economic activities.”. This is also linked to the regional forest plan. “In line with the New Aquitaine Regional Forest Programme, this objective will be achieved by:
- Limiting the spread of urban development on the edges of future fire risk (global warming);
- Incorporating the risk of fire into the spatial reorganisation of urban development in order to relocate activities following changes in the coastline;
- Investment in research and development to prevent health risks and support the adaptation of species (essences) with the aiming for a resilient, diversified forest that maximises carbon storage (in situ and in the value chain)”.
However, the above quote indicates that the elaboration and development of adaptation measures is more directly targeted in regional forest programs and other political and administrative instruments. Additionally, the high amount of private forests in the region is rendering the formulation of direct targets difficult. The most important policy programs and plans regulating adaptation are:
- National forest programme (combine mitigation and adaptation of forests to climate change; Sustainable and multifunctional management of forests as nature-based solution to adapt to climate change)
- Pluriannual plan of regional forest development in region of Aquitaine (Necessity to provide impulses to silviculture and wood mobilization against the background of economic developments and climate change)
- Regional Forest Programme 2020 Nouvelle Aquitaine (Innovate to adapt silviculture and close knowledge gaps in the field of forest adaptation to climate change; define adequate development routes)
- Forest inventory plan for Nouvelle Aquitaine
Most important among the legislative instruments organizing adaptation of forests is the Framework Law on the Forest (9 July 2001). The Regional Department for Agriculture and Forest (DRAF) and the Regional Center for Forest Owners (CRPF) are responsible for implementing the sustainable management documents. These documents include the forest management plan (PSG), the code of good forestry practice (CBPS) and the standard management regulations (RTG), and draw on a framework document, the Regional Plan for Forestry Management (SRGS).
As an example, the actions and strategic objectives proposed by the Regional Forest Programme 2020 will be presented here:
- “Axe 3: Strengthen the protection of forests against the risks;
- 4.3.6 FA 33 Assuring the renewal of coastal forests through adaptation of regeneration techniques to new contexts caused by climate change and especially being attentive to the difficulties of regeneration of these forests.
- 4.3.7 FA 34 Establish a regional plan of governance for storm crisis events in Nouvelle-Aquitaine
- Adaptation of forests to climate change
- Following the intensity of climate change parts of the forests will be affected, be it directly (drought, forest fires), or indirectly, through the propagation of damages, storms, or the soil fertility. Already today the climate change affects French forests through modifying the phenology and the functioning of trees. Faced with more frequent droughts in the future, forest productivity is at stake, with some species more affected than others. The adaptation of forests needs to occur through specific choices of tree species and also forest management. Research programmes are currently underway to define the optimum models[2]”.
GERMANY
Germany adopted a National Adaptation Strategy (Deutsche Anpassungsstrategie an den Klimawandel - DAS) on 17 December 2008. A Plan for Action (Aktionsplan Anpassung - APA) with the goal to implement the objectives formulated in the DAS was adopted on 31 August 2011 and updated in 2015 (APA II) and 2020 (APA III). Un update was published end of 2024 and could thus not be included in this report. Further, a first National Interdisciplinary Climate Risk Assessment was published in 2025, bringing together aspects of climate change adaptation and security (metis et al. 2025).
The Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety originally functioned as the central administration body, though a reorganisation after the latest election shifted responsibility to the Federal Ministry for Economic Affairs and Climate Action. An interministerial working group on climate change adaptation (Interministerielle Arbeitsgruppe Anpassung and den Klimawandel - IMA) has been established early in the process to horizontally and vertically coordinate adaptation processes and was endowed with executive power for policy-making (i.e. to allow for the continued development of the strategies and plans and horizontal/vertical coordination in the German federal system). The IMA is supported by a standing committee (Ständiger Ausschuss zur Anpassung an die Folgen des Klimawandels), which coordinates, especially vertically, actions for climate adaptation between institutions at federal and federal states level. Although DAS and APA were drafted at Federal Level, these documents build on activities already undertaken by various federal states and actions that were commonly defined and carried out at both levels of governance. Thus, the DAS and APA are commonly depicted as the result of a continuous joint dialogue between the federal states and the federal government. The actual actions and policy solutions vary between the federal states, especially with regard to forests, as forest policy competences still firmly rest in the hand of the federal states. All 16 federal states have developed climate adaptation strategies and have developed measures, some as part of an integral climate change strategy or program (e.g. BW).
In the following, excerpts from the first and the most recent APA with regard to forest adaptation are presented to allow for an assessment how these plans developed. The excerpts clearly show a shift from groundwork to action-based measures. Whereas the first APA from 2011 focused on knowledge, scientific projects and informational campaigns, the third APA from 2020 integrates a set of actions targeting specifically the conversion of forests and an increasing economic and ecological resilience. Actions in the APA III 2020 are renewing those of the APA I (2011) and expand on these. Despite this, a focus remains on knowledge development and transfer. The topic of funding is brought to the foreground more prominently. Both issues reflect the rather limited options of managing forest adaptation from the national level.
APA 2011:
The aim of APA 2011 was stated to underpin “the goals and options for action set out in the German Adaptation Strategy with specific activities of the federal government in the coming years and discloses linkages with other national strategy processes (including High-Tech Strategy 2020, National Biodiversity Strategy, National Forest Strategy)”.
Actions with regard to forests are actually rather limited and vague, which reflects the limited decision-making competencies of the federal level with regard to forestry. The actions focus on dissemination of knowledge and the broadening of knowledge on climate change effects. Direct actions are limited to forests owned by the federal level:
“Knowledge transfer
- B.1.2.1. Number 48 “climate change and climate protection in the Agrarian Sector” (Klimawandel und Klimaschutz im Agrarbereich): Since September 2010, BMELV has been operating its climate portal online at www.klimawandel-und-klimaschutz.de. It provides comprehensive information on this topic and draws particular attention to the services provided by agriculture and forestry as well as the upstream and downstream sectors. This supports the transfer of knowledge from research results to practice in particular. The federal states have the opportunity to present their projects on this platform in an up-to-date manner.
- B.1.3. Number 68 Balancing the demands on forests (Forest Strategy 2020): Forests fulfil important economic, ecological and social functions. They are of considerable importance for climate protection. The United Nations has declared 2011 the International Year of Forests to raise awareness of the multiple functions of forests. On the occasion of the International Year of Forests, the Federal Government intends to present a Forest Strategy 2020 with the following focal points:
- Maintaining the economic basis of forest enterprises and permanently securing the environmentally and nature-compatible supply of raw materials
- Securing and increasing the contribution of the forestry and timber industry to climate protection, including the adaptation of forests to climate change.
- Preservation of biological diversity and efficient protection of natural assets
- preservation of the recreational value of the forest and its special cultural functions and services
- B.3. 13 Creation of climate resilient forests in the federal forest: Taking into account the respective purpose of the federal forests, the Federal Agency for Real Estate Tasks (BImA) develops stable, structurally rich and site-appropriate mixed forests using natural succession. In doing so, it is guided by the current state of research.”
APA III 2020
“The creation of climate-robust forests in the Federal Forest provides for the stable, structurally rich and site-appropriate development of mixed forests. This is based on the current state of research. The Forest Climate Fund (WKF) funding instrument is intended to implement measures of special federal interest that serve to adapt forests to climate change and maintain the indispensable contribution of near-natural, structurally and species-rich forests to safeguarding the natural basis of life in the long term. The positive effects for the development of the CO2 reduction and energy potential of forests and wood are to be strengthened. In addition, the promotion of measures for the adaptation of forests to climate change in the Joint Task for Agricultural Structures and Coastal Protection (GAK) should be further developed” (p. 55).
- 3.1 Program of measures for the agenda "Adaptation of agriculture, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture to climate change" In 2019, a program of measures for climate adaptation was developed on the basis of the agenda for the adaptation of agriculture, forestry, fisheries and aquaculture to climate change. Representatives of the federal government and the Länder worked in expert groups to develop climate adaptation measures for the following specialist areas: plants (arable and special crops), forests, animals, fisheries and aquaculture, and the area of "overarching themes". In the subsequent coordination process, the following priority areas were identified: "Research", "Risk assessment", "Practical transfer", "Breeding" and "Water management".
- 3.4 Creation of climate-resilient, robust forests in the federal forest “Taking into account the respective purpose of the federal forests, the Federal Agency for Real Estate Management (BImA) develops stable, structurally rich and site-appropriate mixed forests using natural succession. In doing so, it is guided by the current state of research.” (APA 2011, activity B.3.13; BMF/BImA, as of 2011)
- 3.6 Creation and permanent safeguarding of site-appropriate, near-natural, structurally rich, climate-stable and ecologically high-quality forest ecosystems with predominantly native tree species. This also includes the promotion of natural forest regeneration as opposed to planting on suitable sites, as well as the orientation of hunting (level of game populations) to the needs of the forest.
- 3.7 Forest Climate Fund (WKF) funding instrument: The measures of the Forest Climate Fund are intended to develop and optimize the CO2 reduction, energy and substitution potential of forests and wood and to support the adaptation of German forests to climate change.
- 3.11 Promote forest areas with natural forest development in order to create a system of reference areas that can provide indications for the adaptation of forest management to climate change through systematic monitoring.
- 3. 14 Securing ecosystem integrity in a changing climate. Based on scenarios for climate change and other stressors, projections of the development of ecosystem functions and services as well as biodiversity are to be made and an assessment system for the state and sustainable development of near-natural terrestrial ecosystems that can be uniformly applied in Germany is to be developed.
- 3. 17 Intensify research on the interactions of climate change, pests and abiotic and biotic damaging factors and their influences on our forests in order to develop recommendations for action to create and secure site-appropriate, near-natural, structurally rich, climate-stable and ecologically high-quality forest ecosystems with predominantly native tree species. Monitor and quantify risks to forests, adapt tree species recommendations with a focus on creating stable, structurally rich and site-appropriate mixed forests, revise site mapping, forest fire and pest prevention.
- 3. 24 Cooperative projects to investigate the future threat to forests from storm weather conditions, fires and pests as consequences of climate change Investigate the adaptation of certain pests (e.g. box bark beetle) to the consequences of climate change. Carry out stand climate studies for climate-related tree species recommendations with the help of agrometeorological models. Investigate the extent to which the frequency of forest-threatening storms as well as slope and forest fires will change as a result of climate change.
Forests are seen as inherently linked to climate change adaptation approaches. Nonetheless, forests and adaptation of forests are only cursorily mentioned in the national DAS and the various APAs. This is especially due to the fact that decision-making with regard to forests is in the responsibility of the federal states. No sectoral adaptation strategy for forests was developed at national level (compare with e.g. Finland), though the National Forest Strategy touches upon adaptation (see below).
The broad position of the DAS 2008 on adaptation and forests and the balancing act between responsibilities resting at federal and federal states level is exemplified by the following quote: “A timely adaptation of forests to climate change is required to reduce the future risk of increasing calamities and linked disruptions of the wood market and forest functions. Forest owners should pursue the conversion of monocultures in site adapted mixed stands with reduced risks. Adapted numbers of game are an essential prerequisite for this undertaking […] Beyond this the federal state and the Länder should reduce information deficits to convince the more than 1.3 million forest owners of the necessity of adaptation measures. From a forest management perspective stable, mixed stands should be preferred, as they have a greater resistance against large-scale calamities caused by storms or bark beetles and a greater adaptation potential to changing climate conditions. Regarding . Besides autochthon species allochthon species might offer options, though aspects of nature conservation should be taken into account.
Forest owners should, due to the uncertainties of scenarios for climate change and its effects on long-term forest production, pay attention to a . In the medium term the Länder should increase scientific decision-making bases for a climate adapted forest conversion. These could include among others monitoring, establishment of trial sites, site mapping, forest plants rearing, provenience science and regional planting guidelines, wood harvesting techniques and timber use options under a changing climate. Additionally, the Federal state and the Länder should invest in dialogue and knowledge transfer with and among forestry experts. In the frame of the CAP [Gemeinschaftsaufgabe‚ Verbesserung der Agrarstruktur und des Küstenschutzes’ – GAK] the federal government and federal states are already funding various measures, which serve the adaptation of forestry to climate change, for example the conversion of monocultures to stable mixed deciduous, conifer stands. The close-to-nature conversion, which is also required under nature conservation aspects, is additionally supported through adapted game densities. Beyond this, measures exist already to prevent and deal with calamities. To expand on this, the federal government and the federal states should assess, if additional measures will be required, as the funding of water retention in areas with water deficit. A further development of environmental monitoring of the state of forests seems also necessary to detect changes at an early stage and enable sufficient amount of time to react and develop appropriate measures” (pp. 30-32).
Key measures mentioned are referring to best practices and usually are formulated in an appellative form: conversion of monocultures in site adapted mixed stands with reduced risks; tree species and origins adapted to sites and the expected developments; broad risk mitigation and a broad variability of options for forest management actions; Länder should increase scientific decision-making bases for a climate adapted forest conversion; further development of monitoring activities; increased funding (esp. through CAP). As the federal level has only limited options to establish a regulatory framework for the above-mentioned points, a funding program on climate adapted forest management (Förderprogramm Klimaangepasstes Waldmanagement) was established in 2022 to support establishment of climate adapted forest management with the explicit goal to “introduce a long-term approach that addresses concrete requirements for additional climate protection and biodiversity services that go beyond the current legal requirements and certification systems, rewards them and thus enables forest owners to further develop their forests in a climate-smart manner“ (BMEL, 2022).
This is complemented by funding and support at the level of federal states (especially through more focused funding on forest conversion, forest expansion, or forests affected by calamities). The funding program was based on and expanded (financially and with regard to linked biodiversity requirements) an earlier funding directive from 2013, which was adapted in 2017 (Richtlinie zur Förderung von Maßnahmen zum Erhalt und Ausbau des CO 2 -Minderungspotenzials von Wald und Holz sowie zur Anpassung der Wälder an den Klimawandel). In March 2023 the federal government adopted another funding program that partially focuses on forests, the Action program for natural climate protection (Aktionsprogramm Natürlicher Klimaschutz - ANK): “In addition to the existing funding programme ‘climate-adapted forest management’ [...] we intend to develop a supplementary funding instrument. This creates targeted financial incentives for achieving desirable conditions such as additional structural diversity and biodiversity in forests that are already closer to their natural state, and thus also aims at partially extensive forest management. In this way, the funding instrument further contributes to the stabilisation and increase of carbon storage in climate-stable, ecologically valuable forest ecosystems” (BMUV 2023, p. 3)
The National Forest Strategy includes among its nine aims one for climate protection and climate adaptation. The aim broadly states that “[t]he adaptation of forests to climatic changes is necessary to safeguard all the functions that forests can perform for society, their owners, nature and the environment”. This underscores the contributions made by forests and wood to climate protection, as well as the Federal Government’s energy and climate targets. The National Forest Strategy 2050 mentions four issues with an explicit regard to adapting forests to climate change (BMEL, 2021):
- a) “Action plans for adapting forests are developed;
- b) Forest Conversion is increased;
- c) Measures to adapt forests and forest conversion are increasingly supported;
- d) Monitoring of climate change is established.”
These broad goals correspond to the federal structure and provide a framework for the federal states to further elaborate sectoral adaptation strategies. This mirrors the progress made in the national adaptation plans and outlines a shift from groundwork measures to specific actions. This becomes clear when comparing the goals to the adaptation goals in the previous Forest Strategy 2020 (BMEL, 2011):
- a) “Research on the impacts of climate change on forests and their performance, as well as on suitable adaptation measures, should be intensified.
- b) The climate adaptation potential in existing non-utilized forests shall be investigated and advice given for forest management.”
The Climate Protection Act in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg entered into force on 31 July 2013. The Climate Protection Act underwent a comprehensive revision in 2020, 2021 and was amended again in 2023 (UM BW, 2023 a). In 2015, the Ministry of the Environment, Climate Protection and the Energy Sector (Ministerium für Umwelt, Klima und Energiewirtschaft Baden-Württemberg), which is in charge of the climate adaptation and mitigation strategies, published the Strategy for the adaptation to Climate Change in Baden-Württemberg: vulnerabilities and adaptation measures in relevant action fields (Strategie zur Anpassung an den Klimawandel in Baden-Württemberg: Vulnerabilitäten und Anpassungsmaßnahmen in relevanten Handlungsfeldern) (UM BW, 2015). The strategy was updated in 2023 (UM BW, 2023 b).
The Climate Protection Act in the federal state of Baden-Württemberg entered into force on 31 July 2013. The Climate Protection Act underwent a comprehensive revision in 2020, 2021 and was amended again in 2023 (UM BW, 2023 a). In 2015, the Ministry of the Environment, Climate Protection and the Energy Sector (Ministerium für Umwelt, Klima und Energiewirtschaft Baden-Württemberg), which is in charge of the climate adaptation and mitigation strategies, published the Strategy for the adaptation to Climate Change in Baden-Württemberg: vulnerabilities and adaptation measures in relevant action fields (Strategie zur Anpassung an den Klimawandel in Baden-Württemberg: Vulnerabilitäten und Anpassungsmaßnahmen in relevanten Handlungsfeldern) (UM BW, 2015). The strategy was updated in 2023 (UM BW, 2023 b).
The strategy is a general strategy and no individual sectoral strategy for forests exists. Nonetheless, some of the basic vulnerabilities for the forest sector were sketched, a number of adaptation strategies suggested and the regulatory background for these activities was developed. With regard to forests the following excerpt states that the multifunctional alignment of forest activities should be maintained with regard to forests. „The basic objectives of an adaptation strategy to climate change are specified for this field of action by the State Forest Act of Baden-Württemberg. The main objectives are forest conservation and the fulfilment of the diverse functions of the forest even under changing climatic conditions. Subordinate objectives result from the multifunctional effects of the forest stands described in the State Forest Act:
- Useful function: sustainable production of timber and non-timber products.
- Protective function: climate, water, air, soil, landscape, protection of species
- Recreational function for the population“ (p.17).
Forests in the state of Baden-Württemberg:
With around 1.4 million hectares of forest and a forest share of 38 percent of the state's area, Baden-Württemberg is one of the most densely forested federal states in Germany. According to the last inventory, 53 percent of Baden-Württemberg's total forest consists of conifers and 42 percent of deciduous trees.
About 40 percent of the forest is owned by the municipalities: on average, each of the 1100 municipalities in the state has about 500 hectares of forest. Almost as much forest area (36 percent) is in private hands, and about 24 percent of the forest area belongs to the state of Baden-Württemberg as state forest, which is managed by the state enterprise (ForstBW) according to the concept of “close to nature forest management".
The adaptation strategy of 2015 defines the following main objectives and subordinated measures. For each of the subordinated measures responsible lead actors are designated, affected actors are distinguished and the urgency / time horizon is defined (MLR, 2015; p. 16):
- “Sustaining vital, stable and adaptive forests (climate sensitive forest management): Conserving various forest functions under a changing climate of sites
- Methods for dynamizing tree species suitability assessment: quantification of site characteristics in models and maps as a central basis for future silvicultural planning
- Development of an advisory concept for forest owners: Obtaining necessary information for adapting forests to climate change
- Development of an advisory concept for forest owners regarding climate change effects and adaptation planning
- Development of an advisory concept for forest owners with vulnerability analysis, planning model and catalogue of measures
- Monitoring of harmful organisms: Optimization of monitoring systems for the timely and spatially based detection of indigenous and alien harmful organisms
- Preservation of soil fertility and promotion of root penetration: avoidance of soil compaction, site-differentiated soil protection liming
- Measures to conserve economic use of forests
- Development of a comprehensive decision support system: consideration of natural (tree species selection, resilience) and forestry target dimensions (economic goals, risk aversion, etc.)
- Silvicultural measures to reduce climate change-related risks: Promotion of resistance and resilience through natural regeneration, young stand maintenance, thinning, forest conversion and silvicultural preventive measures”
In the official evaluation of the strategy published in 2020 this target was further outlined. "There is no such thing as a single silvicultural measure. Silvicultural measures can, however, be categorized according to the development phase of the forests as follows (MLR, 2020; p. 32):
- Growth phase: Regularly recurring, staggered thinning improve the availability of soil water, promote tree vitality and are a prerequisite for the targeted preservation of (still) competitively inferior tree species in mixtures, which are, however, sustainable in climate change.
- Maturation phase: In particularly risk-dispositioned stands, the development goals should be adjusted in such a way that the risk remains limited. Limiting the height of the stand, the target strength and the stock are the most effective ways of doing this. These stands also offer the best starting points for early conversion into future-stable follow-up stands.
- Rejuvenation phase: During rejuvenation, care must be taken that the resulting mixed stands contain a sufficient number of tree species that are assessed as sustainable in climate change. Such tree species should therefore - especially in the case of competitive inferiority - be specifically preserved and promoted in natural regeneration or planted in sufficient numbers.
Whereas the 2015 version was published by the Ministry of Food, Rural Areas and Consumer Protection, that is amongst others responsible for forests, an updated version was published by the Ministry of the Environment, Climate and Energy in 2023. The new adaptation strategy highlights the following objectives concerning forests (UM BW, 2023 b; p. 84):
- “Conservation and development of diverse, resilient and adaptable forests,
- Improving risk management
- Establishment of cross-organizational forest monitoring with adequate resolution
- Adaptation of institutional structures
- Reward ecosystem services
- Promote the sustainable use of wood
- Strengthen, connect and if necessary reorient research capacities”
In 2023 an updated version of the Climate Adaptation Strategy was published by the Sate Ministry for the Environment (the previous)
The Guideline for State-Wide Forest Development Types (Richtlinie landesweiter Waldentwicklungstypen - WET-RL) implements the general principles of close-to-nature-forest management of this measure. The guideline has been mandatory in the state forest since 1 April 2014 and is offered to municipal forests as part of voluntary advisory and support services: “Implementation is consistently supported by training programs […] Silvicultural strategies for the functionally appropriate management of forests are continuously developed there, as well as site-specific and silvicultural planning principles for forest management planning, which takes place every ten years”.
The Guideline was updated in 2024 (MLR, 2024) and its implementation is assessed regularly through monitoring and evaluation reports. The monitoring report of 2020 does also contain indicators for forests, which are linked to the targets mentioned above and cover “Endangered spruce stands, Timber increment, Damaged wood occurrence according to causes of damage, Areas infested by bark beetles, Forest fire risk and forest fires, Mixed stands, Promotion and financing of forest conversion, Proportion of deciduous trees in regeneration, Adaptation-specific education and training, Earmarked reserves for risk minimization, Conservation of forest genetic resources”. (MLR, 2020)
Further, the Federal State of Baden Württemberg is currently working on a forest strategy 2050. In 2021 a progress report was published, highlighting seven thematic fields that are covered by the strategy (FVA & LFV, 2021):
- Cross-sectional topics
- Climate change
- One central objective refers to the active management of forests, contributing to ensuring all forest functions.
- Forest and people
- Societal megatrends
- Resources
- Forest property
- Biodiversity
- Digitalisation
Municipal forest of the city Freiburg
In the latest report for the management of the City Forest Freiburg from the city council in 2020 - the Convention of the City Forest Freiburg (Freiburger Waldkonvention – Waldfunktion, Leitbild und Zielsetzungen für den Stadtwald, 2020)- it was stated that the 5.200 ha of forest serve four coequal purposes: recreation, sustainable wood production, nature protection as well as climate change mitigation with the latter being newly added as a key utility.
Climate change mitigation refers to the ecosystem service of forests as a carbon sink by CO2-sequestration. Hereby, rejuvenation and continuous growth is promoted for in-situ storage as well as sustainable production of forest products for long term CO2-sequestration ex-situ to meet the anticipated mitigation goals.
To improve resilience of the City Forest Freiburg, adaptation strategies are discussed to safeguard the provision of these multiple ecosystem services. The key objective of all stakeholders of the City Forest Freiburg is maintain and promote its diversity and stability under climate change conditions. In order to achieve this, the above mentioned 2020 consensus defined and agreed on major objectives and measures.
Overall, a key objective is the increase of heat and drought tolerant species as well as the promotion of mixed uneven-aged forests by higher amount of management interventions (e.g., trimming of thickets, thinning) and rejuvenation. In the montane area rejuvenation will be less controlled and more distributed (also including Douglas fir), whereas in the forests of the Rhine plain rejuvenation clearly aims on increasing and maintaining oak trees on a large scale. Harvesting amount will be increased (by 6% over the next decade) aiming on old and good quality wood for sustainable production and ex-situ carbon storage. For recreation and tourism, highly frequented areas were identified to which more management will be increasingly focusing on aesthetics and forest care (e.g., trails). Moreover, one sixth of the City Forest Freiburg is defined as protection area with the sole purpose of plant and wildlife biodiversity protection. Yet, in comparison to the previous decade, all mentioned objectives and measures require more management and workload thus higher costs.
With the 2020 consensus, clear action has been defined to safeguard the future of the City Forest Freiburg. However, the planning horizon of the mentioned key objectives is only for the next decade. Climate change will become harsher in all likelihood with destructive impacts amplifying in the distant future. Therefore, it is highly important to analyze the conditions and challenges of the City Forest Freiburg in 2050 or even 2100 as well as discuss the robustness (ecological and social resilience) of the decisions of the 10-year planning in the long-term future.
LITHUANIA
The National Strategy for Climate Change Management Policy was adopted in November 2012 (Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania 2012; ‘Strategy for National Climate Management Policy 2013-2050'). An updated strategy is being discussed in the parliament (Augutavičienė & Liukaitytė-Kukienė, 2020) . The strategy is an integrated strategy which covers both adaptation and mitigation issues and includes implementation considerations. There are no plans to develop a separate climate adaptation strategy. Until 2012, Lithuania had the National Strategy for the Implementation of the UNFCCC, which included measures for both mitigation and adaptation.
An Action Plan to implement the goals and objectives of the Strategy of National Climate Change Management Policy 2013-2020 was first adopted in April 2013 and contained measures for the years 2013-2016. The Action Plan consisted of general provisions, targets, objectives, measures, financial resources, implementing institutions, assessment criteria and values. Following the strategic planning methodology approved by the Government, the Action Plan was prepared for a three-year period and is updated annually by adding one more year. Additionally, an Inter-Institutional Action Plan for the implementation of the goals and objectives for 2013 – 2020 was adopted in 2013. In 2016, the updated Action Plan with measures for 2017-2019 was adopted by the Government Resolution No. 8469. It includes 66 measures of which 31 are related to climate adaptation. An updated Action Plan with measures was adopted by the Government Resolution No. 147 in 2018. New plans for adaptation will be integrated into the National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) (Augutavičienė & Liukaitytė-Kukienė, 2020).
There are no sectoral adaptation strategies, as the preferred approach is to integrate adaptation into existing sectoral strategies (Augutavičienė & Liukaitytė-Kukienė, 2020).
In order to ensure the implementation in the international agreements and the EU legal acts defined targets for Lithuania, on 30 June 2021 by the Decree No XIV-490 of the Parliament of the Republic of Lithuania approved the National Climate Change Management Agenda which lays down the targets and objectives for climate change mitigation and adaptation by 2050. The Strategy implements the legal acts of the EU Climate Change and Energy (CARE) Package till 2030 and replaces the National Strategy for Climate Change Management Policy until 2020 adopted in 2012. The goal of the Agenda is to develop and implement climate change management policy in Lithuania. The Agenda sets the short-term (until 2030), mid-term (until 2040) and long-term (until 2050) goals and objectives in the field of climate change mitigation and adaptation.
The Lithuanian Ministry of Environment (MoE) is the main coordinating institution responsible for the following:
- the development and implementation of climate mitigation and adaptation policy;
- transposing EU climate policy into national legislation;
- advising for other institutions on integrating climate policy objectives and concerns into sectors that are not the MoE’s responsibility.
Governmental and municipal institutions responsible for the implementation of the concrete measures are identified in the Action Plan. The horizontal and vertical coordination of the implementation of adaptation policy is ensured through the work of the National Climate Change Committee. The municipalities are responsible for coordinating the regional adaptation work and supporting local actors in their adaptation work. The Strategy refers extensively to EU and national strategies (Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania 2012).
The implementation of the Action Plan is coordinated by the MoE. Ministries of Finance, Energy, Transport and Communications, Economy, Education and Science, Agriculture and the Interior, as well as municipalities, the Research Council of Lithuania, research institutions and universities, companies, organizations and others participate in the implementation within their competence and allocating funds for their measures. The goals and objectives of the Strategy are implemented by cross-sectorial policies, such as the National Progress Program, the National Sustainable Development Program and sectoral development programs or short-term planning documents. (Climate-ADAPT Data Base 2020) The MoE is responsible for coordinating the implementation of the Action Plan.
The National Climate Change Committee is tasked to coordinate the development and implementation of the national climate policy. Representatives of the following ministries are involved in the Committee’s work: Ministry of Environment (chair), Ministry of Energy, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Transport and Communications, Ministry of Education and Science, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Economy, Ministry of Agriculture and the Chancellery of the Government of Lithuania. Thus, most of the relevant sectors are covered by the Committee with the Ministry of Health and the Fire and Rescue Department being exceptions.
According to the Decree of the Minister of Environment No. 178 of 30 March 2001, the Committee: coordinates the implementation of the Strategy for National Climate Management Policy and its Action Plan; coordinates the development of new strategies, action plans, and legal initiatives; provides recommendations regarding investment priorities; coordinates preparation of climate policy related reports; and performs other coordination tasks. The Decree also provides procedural guidance on the functioning and decision making of the Committee. Usually there are two annual meetings of the Committee organized by the MoE.
The MoE is responsible for overall coordination of the implementation of the Action Plan. However, certain activities of the Action Plan are assigned to other ministries, such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Transport, Ministry of Economy.
Vertical coordination: The National Climate Change Committee is tasked with coordinating the development and implementation of the National Climate Policy. According to the Decree of the Minister of Environment No. 178, the Committee includes a representative of the Association of Local Authorities in Lithuania, other Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and the science community. The Association of Local Authorities in Lithuania also coordinates activities in the framework of the Covenant of Mayors, ensuring cooperation and knowledge exchange of municipalities and national institutions. Certain activities of the Action Plan are expected to be implemented by municipalities, including adaptation-related actions.
The Strategy for National Climate Management Policy refers to mainstreaming of climate adaptation objectives and measures in the country’s economic sectors that are most climate sensitive. The Strategy lists specific adaptation measures to be implemented in agriculture, forestry, water management, energy, transport, industry and public health by 2020. The Strategy promotes the implementation of economic measures, including tax relief, state aid measures and other instruments to achieve short-term climate adaptation goals and objectives, as well as preparing a legal framework for regulations in the transport and energy sectors and spatial planning.
The Strategy also sets special indicative medium-term (by 2030 and 2040) and long-term (by 2050) climate adaptation goals that include continuous monitoring and survey of the most vulnerable economic sectors, such as agriculture, and ensuring their resilience. The measures for attaining these goals and objectives have been planned during the development of the Action Plans taking into account the developments at the EU and international policy level.
The latest Action Plan includes measures that ensure the implementation of cross-sectoral and short-term climate adaptation goals and objectives. These measures mainly focus on reducing negative climate impacts on different sectors, on improving the sustainability of sectors and on improving management systems. For example, the Ministry of Health is tasked to educate doctors and other health sector employees on climate impacts, health risks and adaptation measures. The Ministry of Agriculture is tasked to implement climate adaptation measures in the forestry sector.
Actions related to forests in the Climate Change management agenda 2021 are (RESOLUTION APPROVING THE NATIONAL CLIMATE CHANGE MANAGEMENT AGENDA):
- “15.8. In order to increase adaptation to extreme events and reduce the damage they cause, there is a lack of focus on nature-based solutions (e.g. the development of green infrastructure in cities, the restoration of ecosystems), which often not only help to cope with risks, but also add value to the well-being of the population as well as to landscapes and biodiversity.
- 35.3. in forestry, ecosystems, biodiversity and landscape conservation, the target is to preserve and enhance the resilience of ecosystems and the scale and value of ecosystem services, with a greater focus on nature-based solutions. The key objectives for achieving the set target are as follows:
- 35.3.1. to carry out research and monitoring to determine the services and values provided by ecosystems and to assess ecosystem services for decision-making;
- 35.3.2. to stop biodiversity loss, limit the spread of invasive species due to the effects of climate change;
- 35.3.3. to increase the resilience of forest ecosystems and to promote the restoration of the hydrological regime of swamp forests;
- 35.3.4. to encourage forest owners and managers to protect old-growth forests, to use close-to-nature forestry practices in production forests and to carry out economic activities designed to maintain and conserve elements of biodiversity;
- 35.3.5. when carrying out forest management design works, to envisage and apply effective measures to protect forests from fires and pests, to preserve small forests, spring areas, small rivers, swamps, forest clearings and other elements of forest ecosystems important for biodiversity;”
Adaptation measures at sector level are embedded in specific-sector development programs, such as those that aim to promote sustainable farming (National Rural Development Program 2014-2020), and public transport (National Transport Development Program 2014-2022). There are also other initiatives, such as the National Public Health and Heat Prevention Action Plan for 2016-2020. In 2015, a study was conducted on sector-specific climate vulnerabilities and related risk assessments. Among the priority sectors that have been identified are many sectors related to forestry: energy, transport, industry, agriculture, landscape, spatial planning, ecosystems and biodiversity, fisheries and aquaculture sector, forestry, tourism, groundwater resources, and waste management.
Probably due to language barriers no document on sectoral adaptation strategies could be found. Nevertheless, on a Foreste Europe Symposium in 2017 the Lithuanian Ministry of Environment highlighted the following adaptation measures:
- “Afforestation of state-owned unused land or land that is barely suitable for agriculture by passing to state forest in order to create economically valuable, biologically resistant forest.
- Management of the state-owned forests passed to state forest enterprises and management of land plots formed by land-use documents for state afforestation.
- Afforestation of private-owned unused land or land that is barely suitable for agriculture by providing financial support from the Rural Development Programme.
- Development and implementation of a system for wood biomass mobilisation from forest by using financial mechanisms.
- Implementation of investment projects for forest residues for biomass production.
- Promotion of non clear-cut felling in private-owned forests by implementation of promotional measures.
- Supervision that the area of state-owned forest, where chemicals for forest health protection from deceases, pests and unwanted vegetation are used, does not exceed plots determined in the National Forest Area Expansion Program 2012-2020.
- Preparation of an inventory and recommendations for management and restoration of endangered or degraded forest ecosystems.”
The Dzūkija National Park is the largest protected area in Lithuania. It was established in 1991 to protect the unique hydrogeographical network, erosional geomorphological complexes, wetlands, biotic communities typical of the Dzūkija forest as well as to preserve the historical archeological, architectural complexes and the ethnocultural values of the forest and riverside villages.
Around 91 % of the National Park with its 58,334 hectares is covered by forests. The park is divided in four functional zones:
The Park is divided into four functional zones: strict reserves (~4 %), reserves (~44 %), recreational (~1 %) and economic (commercial) (~50 %). The conservational zone, which occupies an area of 26,580 hectares that consists of three reservations and 28 reserves: eight landscape reserves, 16 nature reserves, and four cultural reserves.
Since 2005, some areas of the Dzukija National Park are also included into the list of Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) of the Habitats Directive (LTVAR0017 Dainava Forest - 54832,62 ha). Approximately 70 % of the land is private, the rest is owned by the state.
Forests were managed by the National Park until 2004. Now government owned forests are managed by the State Forest Enterprise. Forest inspections and specialists are controlling the forest management measures. When joining the EU, forest management was not in line with the requirements of the directives. Only after comprehensive habitat mapping the new regulations for forestry are applied.
Further information on adaptation strategies will be retrieved through interviews with local stakeholders.
SPAIN
The first national Spanish adaptation plan, Plan Nacional de Adaptación al Cambio Climático (PNACC), was already adopted in 2006. Since the adoption, it forms the reference frame of public organisations / administrations for knowledge generation and construction of adaptive responses to climate change in Spain. The PNACC was developed through three successive work programs, which taken together have defined more than 400 actions of which most were already implemented or are in the process of implementation.
The current Plan Nacional de Adaptación al Cambio Climático (PNACC) 2021-2030 (adopted in 2020) constitutes the basic planning instrument for promoting coordinated actions towards effects of climate change at national level. It entails as a main objective to avoid or reduce present damages and future threats of climate change and construct an economy and a society with greater resilience. The PNACC 2021-2030 was the result of a collective process of analysis, reflection and public participation (MITECO, 2020).
The bodies coordinating and participating in climate change action in Spain are the National Climate Council (CNC), the Coordination Commission of Climate Change Policies (CCPCC) and the Environmental Sector Conference. The CNC acts as an inter-ministerial body and links the Ministry for the Ecological Transition (through the Secretary of State for the Environment and involving different government departments) with the regions (Autonomous Communities), the Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces, representatives from research institutions, social actors and NGOs. The CNC develops proposals and recommendations to define climate change policies, including the drafting of adaptation strategies. However, CNC’s main role is to inform and encourage the participation of policymakers and other organizations representing social and environmental interests in the preparation and monitoring of climate change policies and measures promoted by the State. Hence, CNC is a horizontal coordination body for the central administration and functions as the national participatory body where most relevant stakeholders are represented. The CCPCC is the national coordination body for climate change and adaptation and represents all key Spanish Ministries (horizontal coordination and cooperation) and all 17 regional governments. The CCPCC adopts all of the Spanish adaptation planning and reporting documents.
The Environmental Sector Conference is a political high-level cooperation body with a multilateral composition. It brings together members of the Ministry for the Ecological Transition, the State General Administration, and the Environmental Council, representing the Administrations of the Autonomous Communities. It thereby also acts as horizontal coordination body. The CCPCC coordinates and collaborates with the national and regional administrations in relation to all climate change and adaptation-related matters. For example, the CCPCC established the Impacts and Adaptation Working Group (GTIA), which is a technical working group involving the central and regional governments that meets usually twice a year. The GTIA pursues coordination and integration of adaptation strategies and activities, and decides upon activities to implement the PNACC. The GTIA reports to the CCPCC.
The PNACC (2021-2030) defined a number of objectives by areas of work for the forest sector. These outline the frame for national ambitions and form the basis for further elaborations in the regional plans.
- “Deepen knowledge on the impact of climate change on forest resources, including both timber and non-timber products, taking into account the effects on ecosystem goods and services.
- Integrate climate change adaptation into forest planning and management to ensure the provision of ecosystem goods and services.
- Integrate climate change adaptation into the planning and day-to-day management of hunting activities and inland fisheries.
- Prevent desertification and land degradation and promote adaptive restoration of degraded land.
- Promote action against forest wildfires through integrated wildfire prevention and wildfire-fighting plans, harnessing the potential of nature-based solutions in a context of climate change and climate change adaptation.” (MITECO,2020; p. 58)
The comparison with the objectives in the first PNACC clearly shows a shift away from measures of knowledge gathering (evaluation of risks and threats) and baseline studies towards more applied and action-oriented adaptation. Thus, there is an evident evolution in the approach towards forest adaptation. Nonetheless, most actions are focusing on the need to integrate climate change actions into planning and policies. The actions defined contain direct references to Nature-based Solutions, though these are limited to the context of forest fire prevention.
Based on the working objectives, six lines of actions are outlined in the PNACC (2021-2030) with regard to forests, desertification, hunting and fishing. Each of these is complemented with responsible actors (ministries / agencies), indicators, and financial instruments:
- “Line of Action 5.1: Integration of Climate Change in the planning instruments with implications for the conservation and improvement of the forest resources
Planning instruments for forests and the Spanish forestry sector such as the Spanish Forestry Strategy, the Spanish Forestry Plan, the Forest Resources Management Plans or the Spanish Strategy for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Forest Resources, among others,coordinate and ensure the coherence of forest-related policies and allow synergies with other sectors that influence forest management […].
It is important that revisions to these instruments and the development of new overall forest resources planning documents respond to the challenges and threats posed by climate change, which can exacerbate the effects of storms and fires or biotic damage. In turn, climate considerations should be incorporated into relevant instruments to enable harvesting planning adapted to climate change scenarios in terms of resource efficiency, raw materials, logistics, structural adaptation, innovation, education, training and skills, information and communication. Because of its influence on the forestry sector, it is also of vital importance that Spain's future Strategic Plan for the Common Agricultural Policy 2021-2027 considers adaptation to climate change, so that the measures to be programmed enable the forestry sector to address the potential impacts of climate change, while contributing to increasing the resilience of the sector. (MITECO, 2020; p. 125)
- Line of Action 5.2: Revision and updating of forest management guidelines and standards
In reality diverse instruments, regulations, laws exist, which structure allocation and management forests on different levels, as for example las Directrices Básicas Comunes de Gestión Forestal Fostenible (AGE), Instrucciones de Ordenación de Montes (CCAA) or Modelos Tipo de Gestión Forestal (CCAA).
It is fundamental that these documents integrate climate considerations to further the integration of climate change adaptation to the day-to-day management of each forest. Forest management promotes the conservation of forest ecosystems and the improvement of environmental socio-cultural and economic functions, and can increase the contribution of forests to the mitigation of climate change, in a way that facilitates forests and the citizens depending on them to adapt to new conditions originating from climate change. Naturally, the management of forests is not merely limited to confront climate change, yet pursues numerous objectives, in general among these: production of goods, protection of soil, water and other environmental services, biodiversity conservation, provisioning of socio-cultural services, supporting means of subsistence and reduction of poverty.
- Line of Action 5.3: Promoting the integration of climate change into hunting and inland fishing policies and measures
- Line of Action 5.4: Promoting the prevention of desertification and the restoration of degraded land
- Line of Action 5.5: Integration of climate projections and adaptation measures into forest wildfire prevention policies and measures
Ecological knowledge of forest systems allows us to address the expected impacts of climate change and to manage landscapes in order to make them more resistant and resilient to increased wildfire incidence. The integration of sectoral policies and the involvement of responsible actors in forestry – as well as the promotion of agroforestry systems and traditional uses such as pastoralism – within a perspective of expected climate change and wildfire risk, are good mechanisms for implementing adaptive measures in the face of the increased danger of wildfires. (MITECO, 2020; p. 130)
- Line of Action 5.6: Expanding and updating knowledge on climate impacts and risks and adaptation measures in the forestry sector, hunting and inland fisheries, and combating desertification”
As mentioned above, the PNACC urged an integration of climate actions into forest relevant policies and plans. Consequently, the National Forest Strategy (Estrategia Forestal Española Horizonte 2050), which was adopted in 2022, acknowledges the need for active adaptation of forests to climate change (MITECO, 2022). The strategy directly references the PNACC:
“In terms of adaptation, the National Plan for Adaptation to Climate Change 2021-2030 (PNACC-2), approved in 2020, incorporates the areas of forestry, desertification, hunting and inland fishing and will be developed through five-year Work Programmes, which will identify the key measures and the units responsible for their development, and Sectoral Adaptation Plans, which will be promoted and drawn up by the competent Ministerial Departments in each case. The PNACC 2021-2030 will contribute to the fulfilment of various international commitments assumed by Spain in the last decade, in which adaptation has become increasingly important, as well as to the EU Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, published in 2021” (MITECO, 2022; p.66).
In line with international and national references with regard to the contributions of forest ecosystems to the mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, the forest strategy defines a number of orientations. While the plan is broad, as forest policy is largely devolved to the regions, and mainly lists national / federal policy frameworks, only one orientation with direct regard to adaptation is defined. The OR.II.1.02. has the most direct relevance for adaptation: “Integrate adaptation to climate change in the forest and silvopastoral planning instruments, which regulate the spaces and management of forest in mid- and long-term, and also in the ecosystem restorations of forests and forest replanting”. Although, direct references are thus sparse, other chapters have clear relations to climate change effects (e.g. desertification, forest fires, forest sanity).
On the regulative side, the national Basic Law on Forestry (Law 43/2003 of 21 November 2003, amended by Law 10/2006 of 28 April 2006) also recognizes the need for forests to adapt to climate change as an inspiring principle of Spanish forestry policy, promoting management aimed at the resilience and resistance of forests to climate change.
“Both approaches, close-to-nature and intensification of management, are employed, depending on the forest function. The national level measures include elaboration of guidelines, selection of proper genetic resources for re- and afforestation, promotion of agroforestry and water retention, restoration of burned areas, promoted conservation of genetic resources and adaptive forest management, PIMA-Adapta Ecosystem Plans in National Parks. In Spain, the autonomous communities (regions) have their own adaptation strategies and additional measures, as they are responsible for forest management. These measures include, among others, promotion of agroforestry systems, developing fire-prevention plans, implementing fire-prevention measures (such as decreasing fire load, prescribed burning, division of forests), afforestation of vulnerable soils, planting of proper tree species, new monitoring schemes, diversifying tree species composition, intensification of forest protection, managing age and spatial structure of forests, etc.” (Forest Europe, 2020; p. 24).
The Government of Catalonia, in accordance with the competences in matters of environmental protection and definition of public climate policies, approved the Catalan Strategy for Adapting to Climate Change 2013-2020 (ESCACC20) on 13 November 2012.
On 17 January 2023, the Government of Catalonia approved the new Catalan Strategy for Adapting to Climate Change with a horizon towards 2030, with the objective to improve adaptation to climate change in Catalonia and reduce its vulnerability through the establishment of 76 operational objectives that are deployed in 312 adaptation measures for the various natural systems, socio-economic areas and territories of Catalonia.
The Strategic Reference Framework for Adaptation to Climate Change for the Horizon 2030 (ESCACC30) is regulated by Law 16/2017 of 1 August on climate change, the first of its kind in Spain and in the nations of southern Europe, which establishes the strategic guidelines that sectoral public policies must follow to adapt to the impacts of climate change and, consequently, reduce our vulnerability.
The incorporation of adaptation into sectoral policy planning is a legal mandate prescribed by Art.10.3 of Law 16/2017 of 1 August on climate change:
10.3. The ministries of the Generalitat, in the areas that are a subject of attention in this law, shall integrate into their sectoral planning and programming, with the participation of local authorities and other actors involved, the objectives relating to reducing vulnerability to the impacts of climate change that is included in the Strategic Reference Framework for Adaptation.
The operational goals and measures incorporate input from the ESCACC30 participatory process and have been agreed within the Adaptation Working Group of the Interdepartmental Commission on Climate Change, which is made up of 27 people from different sectoral government departments and which held 25 bilateral meetings between September 2020 and May 2022. Both the operational goals and the measures will have to be integrated into the sectoral planning and programming of the ministries of the Generalitat in accordance with the provisions of Article 10.3 of Law 16/2017.
ESCACC30
Numerous operational goals in the ESCACC are defined with regard to forests. As mentioned, the ESCACC’s operational goals are split into main groups of Natural Systems, Territories and multisectoral adaptation actions. Due to the relatively recent publication, the ESCACC contains numerous references to nature-based solutions. The goals referencing forests and related to the region of the Living Lab are listed below.
“Natural systems
- Biodiversity
- Address loss of biodiversity and adaptation to climate change simultaneously and synergistically.
- Improve knowledge of the impacts of climate change on biodiversity in Catalonia and in particular on the structure and functioning of ecosystems.
- Increase the resilience of the territorial fabric through the development of green infrastructures and large-scale biodiversity restoration.
- Achieve effective management of protected natural areas that includes climate change adaptation criteria.
- Forests and Forestry
- Coordinate forestry planning with water planning, emphasising the role of forests in the regulation of the water cycle.
- Define and promote forest management that increases the resistance and resilience of forests to the impacts of climate change (especially forest fires), taking into account biodiversity conservation and the specific characteristics of forest stands.
- Encourage co-responsibility in the implementation of measures to adapt to climate change (forest and agricultural land stewardship, silvo-pastoralism in Mediterranean mountains, associations of forest owners, etc.).
- Identify and protect forests where management based on free evolution and forest maturity should be prioritised in order to boost resilience and adaptation to climate change.
- Enhance the market for local forestry products and the bioeconomy.
- Deepen the understanding of the impact of climate change on forest resources and ecosystem services.” (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2017; p. 22)
Operational goals for territories
- “Mountain
- Promote viable land management that can be applied on a larger scale, that makes mountain territories more resilient to climate change and that takes advantage of the opportunities opened up by the new climate scenario. (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2017; p. 28)
- Facilitate and organise the return of agriculture in the mountain territory.
- Promote an intelligent management of the forest, based on the activities of the primary sector or on the solutions based on nature, which are the constituents of the territory.
- Facilitate the incorporation of the residents in the agricultural and forestry sector.
- increase the value of the agricultural, farming and forestry products that are produced. (Generalitat de Cataunlya, 2017; p. 109 – full report in Catalan)
- Reduce the vulnerability of mountain populations, socio-economic sectors and ecosystems to the impacts of climate change. (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2017; p. 28)
- Improve knowledge of the impacts of climate change in mountain territories, promoting the training and awareness needed to manage change and establishing new governance systems that allow for the development of more integrated policies in these territories.” (Generalitat de Catalunya, 2017; p. 28)
Multisectoral adaptation actions
- Biodiversity, operational objective (OP) and measure (M): (OP1) Simultaneously and in a synergic way, to analyse the impact of biodiversity and adaptation to climate change. (M1.4) Prioritise the integration of solutions based on nature and biodiversity into sectoral policies as a mechanism for adaptation to climate change.
- Forests and forestry, operational objective and measure: (OP5) Promote the market for local forest products and the bioeconomy. (M5.1) Promote the use of wood as a construction material.Policy Programmes and Plans (Generalitat de Cataunlya, 2017; p. 129 – full report in Catalan)
Due to the focus of integrating objectives with regard to climate change adaptation into planning and sectoral procedures, these present eventually the operationalisation of the operational goals and translation into concrete practices. The following are important with regard to climate change adaptation of forests in the Living Lab region:
- Estrategia Forestal Española horizonte 2050 (acknowledges the need for active adaptation of forests to climate change).
- Ley de Montes 2003 (national) (Among the principles inspiring the law are: the adaptation to climate change based on a management aimed at the resilience and resistance de los montes to climate change; consideration de los montes as green infrastructures to improve nature capital and their consideration in the mitigation of climate change
- Natural Resource Management Plans (Planes de Ordenación de los Recursos Naturales), los Use and Management Master Plans (Planes Rectores de Uso y Gestión) and the management plans regulated by law 42/2007 regarding the natural and biodiversity heritage (Planes de Gestión, regulados por la Ley 42/2007) are the basic instruments for the planning of natural resources and set the basic guidelines for the management of natural areas.
- General forest policy plans of Catalonia (the plan applies to all forest territories of Catalonia) (1994). Approved on 13 September 1994. Plan general de política forestal 2014-2024. Approved by Acuerdo GOV/92/2014, on 17 June 2014.
- Instruments of Forest Inventories: Among the distinct objectives which have to be complied with are environmental functions such as resistance and resilience to disturbances and the effects of climate change, management for an efficient use of hydrological resources, management to minimize erosion processes, management to conserve the biodiversity and the natural forest patrimony, management for improving protection of forests against GIF and for the prevention of fires and others.
SWITZERLAND
On 2 March 2012, the Federal Council adopted the Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change in Switzerland. This sets out the goals and principles for adaptation at the Federal level, identifies the areas for action in nine sectors and describes the cross-sectoral challenges. The adaptation strategy is being coordinated within the interdepartmental committee on the climate (IDA Klima), led by the Federal Office of the Environment (FOEN / BAFU) (BAFU, 2012).
An Action Plan was published in 2014 (BAFU, 2014). On 19 August 2020, the Federal Council adopted an updated Action Plan on the implementation of the Adaptation Strategy in the period 2020–25. This builds on the first Action Plan for the period 2014–19 and implements many of the measures contained in it.
The 2020–2025 Action Plan contains 75 measures at federal level. 63 of the measures concern activities in the water management, management of natural hazards, soil protection, agriculture, forestry, energy, tourism, biodiversity management, health (human and animal), housing and spatial development sectors. Most of these measures aim to improve the framework for adapting to climate change, to improve the knowledge base through monitoring and research, to review and, where necessary, amend standards, to develop new management strategies and to integrate adaptation into existing processes and forms of cooperation. 12 measures are cross-sectoral and aim to improve the knowledge base and knowledge transfer as well as the coordination and support of the implementation of the adaptation strategy (BAFU, 2020).
The elaboration of the first part of the adaptation strategy was coordinated in the Interdepartmental Commission Climate (Interdepartementalen Ausschuss Klima - IDA Klima). This body was installed by the Bundesrat in 2008 to secure a coherent climate policy at the federal level. Numerous federal institutions were involved, among which also the federal agency responsible for forestry.
To implement the Adaptation Strategy the Bundesrat adopted a first action plan for the period 2014-2019 on 9 April 2014. At the same time the Federal Department for Environment, Mobility, Energy, and Communication was charged to evaluate every two years the implementation of measures defined in the action plan with a first evaluation carried out in 2015.
Adaptation to climate change is, since 2013, defined as the second complementary column besides mitigation of climate gas emissions in the CO2 Law. This law obligates the federal level in article 8 to coordinate adaptation measures and provide the required foundations for implementation:
- The federal level coordinates the measures to avoid and overcome damages to persons or goods of substantial value, which can be caused by increased concentrations of climate gases in the atmosphere.
- The federal level ensures the elaboration and organization of basic works, necessary for the implementation of measures.
In 2022 a Climate Protection Law Initiative was started and the National Convent elaborated a draft. This draft was adopted in June 2023 through a positive vote in a referendum.
Due to the coordination and supportive tasks many measures in the Action Plan are aiming at an improvement of knowledge and at an improvement of the coordination between levels of government (Federal, Cantons, Communities and private sector). This is essential as many adaptation measures fall in competence areas of the cantons. The federal level can only, in the frame of the legal competence, support lower levels in the implementation of sectoral policies and directing resources. Thus, financial support for forest adaptation to climate change is regulated in the forest law. Federal level and cantons are specifying the efforts in specific program agreements and the cantons and communities are cooperating to implement the measures at local level.
Vertical exchange
“The technical exchange of the federal level with cantons usually runs through the responsible persons of individual sectors (Fachverantwortliche Bundesebene – Fachverantwortliche Kantonsebene) and is only exceptionally coordinated across sectors (e.g. Workshop with the coordination offices of the cantons or as part of higher-level meetings of the KVU and BPUK). The coordination team of BAFU has thus only limited direct contact to the cantonal sectoral departments and is not fully aware of or controlling. To mitigate for this a yearly coordination conference on adaptation to climate change of the federal and cantonal level was started in 2015. Nevertheless, individual proposals such as the establishment of an exchange platform for best practice examples, a meeting on specific cross-sectoral topics or the coordination of adaptation and mitigation measures were put forward. […]
At the 2016 cantonal coordination conference, the coordination and cooperation between the responsible federal agencies and the cantonal offices in the area of climate change adaptation was assessed positively by the cantonal representatives present. The exchange of expertise in this area has improved in recent years and the individual cantonal sectors have benefited from the knowledge gained at federal level. In addition, the basic information provided by the FOEN on the climate adaptation strategy was rated as good and useful (e.g. implementation aid on the significance of the Federal Council's strategy for the cantons). Coordination between the federal government and the cantons is made more difficult by the fact that the responsibilities for implementing the climate change adaptation strategy are unclear in certain cantons” (BAFU, 2017; pp. 20-21)
Furthermore, Switzerland is involved in other activities such as the Interreg Alpine Space program which finances cooperation projects across the borders of seven Alpine countries. It tackles common challenges and improves the quality of life of the 80 million inhabitants of the Alpine region. The program addresses public authorities on national, regional and local level, institutions of higher education, as well as enterprises, business support organizations, NGOs and associations. Among the projects are several with direct relevance for climate change adaptation.
Forests and climate change adaptation are addressed in numerous documents at federal and cantonal level. In the following section statements regarding the issue are gathered for the Forest Strategy and the individual Climate Adaptation Plans and Strategies.
First Part of the Strategy of the Federal Council 2 March 2012: Goals, Challenges and Fields of Actions:
The strategy is presented in three parts. A presentation of the overarching goals is followed by the description of the greatest challenges. Finally, the strategy outlines pathways of adaptation in different sectors and defines fields of activities. Those with direct relation to forests are “Sector: dealing with natural disasters and threats; N5 Protection Forests: The effects of increasing temperatures and drought events (e.g. dispersal of pests, drought stress, forest fires) and increasing frequency of storm events effect the functioning of protective forests. Especially, protective forests, which besides problems with stand stability suffer from reduced rejuvenation (i.e. critical protective forests) are affected. These comprise about one-eighth.”
- “Sector: Forestry; Fields of action:
- F1 Critical protection forests: Forests with a protective function, in which insufficient regeneration coincides with reduced stand stability, are particularly at risk from extreme events (around 68,000 ha according to the National Forest Inventory). As a new phenomenon, after the winter storm Lothar in 1999 and the dry summer of 2003, mass reproductions of bark beetles were observed in protection forests, which had not previously occurred at these altitudes.
- F2 Tree stands with a high proportion of coniferous wood at lower altitudes: Such stands, which according to the National Forest Inventory cover around 50,000 ha, have proved sensitive to windthrow, drought and bark beetle infestation in recent years. From 1995 to 2005, around 4.4 million m3 of spruce were felled in the lowlands and in the foothills of the Alps, and a further 3.7 million m3 of spruce were found to be infested with beetles. Against the background of climate change, it makes sense for economic reasons to manage these stands, which are important for the domestic timber industry, in a targeted manner and to reduce risks.
- F3 Climate-sensitive forest sites: This concerns sites prone to drought or sites with high proportions of dry wood in risk areas for forest fires (e.g. Ticino, Valais, Grisons). For the time being, an estimated 50000 ha can be assumed. This collective category will be described in more detail within the framework of the Forest and Climate Change research program.
- F4 Other forest sites: In the other forests, increased resilience or adaptability must be worked towards, so that currently regenerated stands can also fulfil their functions under changed climate conditions in the future.
- Sector: Biodiversity Management;
- B1 Gene pool; B2 habitats and species;
- B3 spread IAS; B4 biotope network / networking;
- B5: Ecosystem Services“. The sector is certainly of high relevance for forests, yet definitions of fields of actions are not directly referring to the forest sector.”
Third part: Plan of actions for the period 2020-2025:
The action plan 2020-2025 covers 75 measures on federal level. 63 of these measures are activities in the sectors water, dealing with natural disasters (threats), soil conservation, agriculture, forestry, energy, housing, tourism, biodiversity management, health (humans and animals) and regional development. 12 measures are cross-sectoral in nature. They are especially directed to improve knowledge basis, coordination, and supporting the implementation of the goals of the adaptation strategy. Measures and operational goals defined for the forestry sector include the following:
- “Minimizing the mass development of bark beetles and other pests and the corresponding damages.
- Identification of suitable stands, locations for the cultivation of conifers.
- Complement and convey principles of climate relevant forest development.
- Consolidation and securing of quality of forest fire warning.
- Improving of early warning in the cantons.
- Reducing the risk of wild forest fires through appropriate forest management (development of basics).
- Consolidating the tool for implementation of the research program forests and climate change
- Ecosystem services of urban trees and forests to be secured by climate adaptation.
- Actualization of the basis for protection forests (Schutzwald) management with relevant adaptation aspects.
- Revision of the guideline on storm damages.
- Investigation of the forest uses threatened by climate change.
- Updating and adapting of planning documents of forest management to climate change.”
More explicitly, the adaptation of forests to climate change is described in the following documents of the forestry sector..
Forest Policy Plan 2020 – Visions, Goals and Measures for a sustainable management of the Swiss Forest (BAFU, 2011)
The forest policy plan explicitly refers to the effects of climate change mitigation and the adaptation efforts under chapter 3.2 Climate change: The forest and timber use are contributing to a mitigation and the effects on the services of forests continue to be minimal. The Goal number 2 substantiates the vision by stating that “[f]or a mitigation of climate change forest management and timber use (substitution) are contributing to a as high as possible CO2 reduction (mitigation). The Swiss forest is retained as an ecosystem that is resilient and capable to adapt and yields services expected from the society also under changing climatic conditions (adaptation)”.
A number of strategic measures are defined and complement vision and goal statement:
- “2.1 Clarification of effects: The effects of climate change (storms, drought etc.) on forests will be researched and forest management measures are assessed regarding their suitability.
- Stage 1: The federal level concluded the research programme “Wald und Klimawandel” and takes care of publishing and communicating results, as well as dissemination. This regards especially the adaptation strategies in the area of forest management. Role of cantons: disperse information; interpretation of results in a regional context; execution of planning; implementation of measures. Role of other actors: education of forest practitioners; implementation of measures.
- Stage 2: The federal level derives measures from the research results for the conservation of genetic variability of autochthon tree species to conserve their resilience and adaptability against climatic change.
- 2.2 Increase of resilience. The resilience of forests will be improved by an adapted tending of young stands with stable and site adapted young stands. Forest stands with insufficient or inappropriate rejuvenation as well as instable stand and those on climate sensitive sites are adapted in a targeted manner.
- Stage 1: The federal level elaborates a federal climate adaptation strategy for the forest. Role of cantons: Disperse information; Interpretation of national strategy in a regional context, planning and implementation of measures. Role of other actors: Disseminate information; implement measures; application of strategic basis. (The strategy was elaborated in 2023, see below).
- Stages 1 & 2: The federal level further develops the funding systems for the tending of young stands according to the results of the research program forest and climate change, assesses the contextual conditions and concludes with the cantons multi-annual program agreements in the frame of the new financial compensation (Neuer Finanzausgleich). Role of cantons: Execution of planning, funding and implementation of measures.” (BAFU, 2013; p. 22)
Forest Policy: Aims and measures 2021-2024 (BAFU, 2021)
In the updated forest strategy document no changes were made regarding visions or goals though underpinning measures were updated:
- “3.2 Mitigation of climate change through forest and timber use – minimal consequences of climate change on services of forests
- Goal 2: For a mitigation of climate change forest management and timber use (substitution) are contributing to a as high as possible CO2 reduction (mitigation). The Swiss forest is retained as an ecosystem that is resilient and capable to adapt and yields services expected from the society also under changing climatic conditions (adaptation)” (BAFU, 2023; p. 17)
Strategic directions and measures; strategic direction 2.2: Increasing adaptive capabilities: “The adaptive capability of the forest with stable and site appropriate juvenile stands is improved by a sufficient rejuvenation and adapted management of these stands. Forest sites with insufficient or inappropriate rejuvenation or instable stands and those on climate sensitive sites are adapted in a directed manner.” (BAFU, 2021; p. 19)
Strategic orientation and measures:
- “Orientation 2.2: improving the adaptive capacity. The adaptability of the forest with stable and site-appropriate young stands is improved through sufficient regeneration and adapted young forest management. Forest stands with insufficient or unsuitable regeneration as well as unstable stands and those in climate-sensitive locations are specifically adapted.
- The federal level implements the measures for forests from the Federal Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan (from 2020) and adapts these according to future revisions. The federal level elaborates in close cooperation with the cantons a specific Overall Strategy for the Adaptation of Forests to Climate Change” in accordance with the motion 19.4177 and the postulate 20.3750. Role of cantons: The cantons are aligning their forest planning with the results of research on forests and climate change and integrate results in cantonal forest management concepts. In this regard regionally, differentiated adaptation strategies should be developed to secure all functions and effects of forests. These strategies should be consolidated among each other. Role of other actors: Forest associations are sensitizing forest owners with regard to the challenges of climate change and offer support. Educational institutions develop and further expand their education in areas of forests and climate change.
- The federal level concludes with the cantons multi-annual program agreements in the frame of the new financial compensation (Neuer Finanzausgleich) in the area of forest management. The federal level updates the funding system according to latest research results on the topic of forests and climate change and assesses the framework conditions for the program agreements with the cantons. Role of cantons: The cantons are planning, subsidizing and control measures to improve the adaptability of forests. To this end they further education and knowledge exchange. Role of other actors: The research and educational institutions work on education and knowledge exchange on the topic of forests and climate change and execute own activities.” (BAFU, 2021; p. 19)
Adaptation of forests to climate change – Report of the Federal Council in reply to Motion 19.4177 Engler (Hêche) of 25 September 2019 and the postulate 20.3750 Vara of 18 June 2020 (Federal Council, 2022)
Following the mandate to develop a strategy for forests and climate change in December 2022 a report of the federal level was produced that specifies forest adaptation measures across five fields of actions. The report defines (as complementation to existing activities) five fields of activities and 19 measures, which shall be implemented by the federal level, cantons, communities and private actors between 2023 and 2030. The 19 measures consist of 13 immediate actions and 6 assessment tasks. The five fields of activities and their objectives are:
- “1. ensure near-natural silviculture and sustainable forest regeneration
- M1: Further development of silvicultural principles and silvicultural instruments
- M2: Regulation of wildlife populations and promotion of wildlife habitat
- M3: Knowledge transfer as well as education and training on current silvicultural knowledge
- M4: Use opportunities for communication
- M5: Monitoring the development of forests and the effectiveness of measures
- P1: Ensure sustainable forest regeneration
- 2. promote climate-adapted resilient forests and biodiversity
- M1: Maintain and promote forest biodiversity in a changing climate
- M2: Strengthen and connect the ecological infrastructure in the forest
- M3: Identification of climate-sensitive forest stands
- M4: Ensuring the impact of the protection forest on extreme sites
- P1: Transition and, in exceptional cases, transformation of climate-sensitive stands.
- 3. manage extraordinary weather events and repair damage
- M1: Planning and organizational preparations (prevention)
- P1: Manage and repair forest damage due to exceptional weather events.
- 4. deal appropriately with hazards that may emanate from the forest
- M1: Develop and communicate rules of conduct
- P1: Develop a risk-based approach to dealing with hazards from the forest
- 5. take advantage of opportunities arising from the changing timber supply
- M1: Forecast changes in timber supply
- M2: Raise awareness among end-users of wood and their advisors.
- P1: Optimization of the climate protection performance of forests and wood
- P2: Increased research, development and knowledge transfer along the forest and wood value chain.”
The canton of Grisons (Ger: Graubünden) defined the progressing climate change as one of six major trends in the message of the government program 2013-2016, especially as temperatures have already increased by 1,8 °C compared to the reference year 1864 (NCCS, 2024). Consequently, in autumn 2014 the government charged the administration to elaborate a cantonal Climate Strategy. The aim was to analyze the challenges of climate change and coordinate actions. The Climate Strategy (Canton Grisons, 2015), published in 2015, which closely follows the Federal Strategy, forms the basis for risk-based and coordinated actions of the cantonal administration with regard to climate change. It delineates in four working papers, which threats and effects are expected by a changing climate [working paper 1] and which sectors are emitting which amount of greenhouse gases [working paper 2]. The strategy calculates risks and chances of climate change for population, economy, and environment in the canton [working paper 3] and names challenges and fields of activity in the climate strategy [working paper 4]. The Climate Strategy was elaborated through participation of 14 departments.
A central objective of the strategy was to define key challenges and identify fields of activity. Of the 80 fields of activities defined by the Federal Climate Adaptation Strategy, 48 were assessed as being relevant for the canton, whereas 32 fields of activities were discarded or integrated in other fields of activities. Additionally, nine new fields of activity were defined. Thus, a total of 57 fields of climate adaptation were suggested for the canton of Grisons. 20 of these were marked as priority fields of action. These can be summarized in the following main areas of climate adaptation (the areas with strong relation to the forest sector are highlighted in bold):
- “KA1: Strengthen the health of the population, which is threatened by the increasing heat.
- KA2: Combat harmful organisms that can spread further as a result of rising temperatures.
- KA3: Strengthen the handling of changing natural hazards, which require integral risk management. The corresponding priority fields of action are: N1 Floods, F101, L101, B101 Tree and forest line.
- KA4: Strengthen agriculture and forestry, which have to adapt their production and performance to the new environmental and site conditions. The corresponding priority action areas are: W4 Irrigation, N1 Floods, L3 Drought, L5 Harmful organisms, F101, L101, B101 Tree and forest boundary, F3 Climate-sensitive forest sites, B3 Spread of invasive alien species, G1T Vector-borne infectious diseases (animal),
- KA5: Motivate the tourism industry, which focuses on winter sports and needs to make increased use of summer potentials, to adapt.
- KA6: Coordinate and optimise water demands in the face of increasing summer drought.
- KA7: Strengthen biodiversity, the development of which requires sufficient space and time in the context of climate change. The corresponding priority fields of action are: F101, L101, B101 Tree and forest boundary, F3 Climate-sensitive forest sites, B1 Gene pool, B2 Habitats and species, B4 Biotope network/networking
- KA8: Monitor and document climate change and effects and inform and sensitize citizens.”
The strategy closely follows the Federal Strategy (with regard to structure and content), yet adapts certain aspects with regard to the regional context. For example, the federal strategy considers a high need for action with regard to conifer dominated stands in lower regions, whereas only assigning average need for action with regard to shifts of the timberline in mountains and climate sensitive stands. The Cantonal Strategy adapts this through assigning an average need for action in conifer dominated stands in lower regions and high need for adaptation for climate sensitive stands and shifting of timberline. The fields of activities for the forests are taken from the federal strategy, yet adapted in wording to the regional context:
- “F1 Critical protection forests
- In Les Grisons 68% of the total forest area (200.000 ha) are protection forests (Office for Forest and Natural Hazards, 2014). Problematic protection forests are defined as those with critical or decreased stability and a cover below 10 %. In the canton this regards about 16% of the accessible protection forests (LFI3) (Duc et al., 2010).
- F2 Conifer rich stands at lower altitude
- Almost three quarters of the protection forests are located above 1,000 m a.s.l. and are therefore predominantly at the upper montane and subalpine levels (Duc et al., 2010). For this reason, the need for action in the canton of Grisons is classified as less urgent than in the rest of Switzerland.
- F3 climate sensitive forest sites
- Forest fires are not rare in the canton. Between 1981 and 2006, a total of 500 forest fires occurred in the canton; of these, 139 affected the southern valleys, 107 the Grisons higher land, 86 the northern Grisons, 92 the central Grisons and 76 the Engadine. The year 2003, with its extreme drought and hot summer, was significantly above the annual average with 44 forest fires. As a rule, the burnt area is not larger than a few hectares. Around two thirds of forest fires in Graubünden are caused by humans.
- F4 Other forest sites
- The forest usually regenerates naturally according to the location and the prevailing climatic conditions.”
An additional field of activity was defined (aligned with the adaptation of the federal strategy described above):
- “F101 Tree and forest vertical limit
- The timberline has risen in the Grisons Alps as in the rest of Europe (Leonelli et al., 2011). The same applies to the altitudinal limit of the individual tree species. Higher temperatures will lead to a further rise in the tree and forest line. On the one hand, this development harbors new opportunities for forestry (expansion of forest area). On the other hand, conflicts with agriculture could arise. This is the case if the forest grows into the summering areas. Or if this dynamic is suppressed. The latter would jeopardize the forest edge habitat.”
The Green Deal Action Plan for Graubünden (AGD) (Office for Nature and Environment, 2021), published in 2021, is an impulse program to promote climate protection and climate adaptation in the canton of Graubünden. Initiated by the Grand Council in 2019, the AGD was drawn up by the administration and is geared towards the goal of becoming climate-neutral by 2050.
In comparison to other adaptation plans, the plan contains not only responsible actors and targeted groups for each action, yet also provides estimates of cumulative costs and cumulative cost savings for implemented actions. Thus, measures with regard to the prevention of forest fires are estimated to amount to costs of 60 million CHF and avoided costs would amount to 100 million CHF in 2050.
Measures with regard to adaptations of forests (Office for Nature and Environment, 2021; pp. 62-65) focus on natural hazards and adapted forest management. In detail they comprise the following activities:
- “4.8.1 Strengthen the handling of natural hazards (forest fire, risk overview and permafrost)
- Already ongoing activities, measures and instruments, etc.
- Development focus 8.1 of the governmental program 2021–2024: Improved protection against natural hazards. Integral risk management of natural hazards is established in Graubünden and allows well-founded and risk-based decisions to be made regarding the defense measures to be taken: [...] Strengthening the resilience of protection forests through basic work [...],
- With the partial revision of the Cantonal Forest Act (KWaG) and the drafting of a new ordinance on integral risk management IRMV, both of which will come into force on 01.01.2021, the canton of Graubünden has a legal and technical basis that is up to date […]
- New measures defined with regard to natural hazards:
- Key measure: Development of a risk assessment for natural hazards. This comprises the compilation and regular updating of risk and danger basic assessments, the development of emergency planning and education and vocational training of local advisors for communities, and the development of an overview of technical risk on streets. Cumulative costs until 2050 amount to 22,5 Mio. CHF and the cumulative effect to 210 Mio. CHF.
- Key measure: Reduction of forest fire risk. Implementation of activities to reduce the risk of forest fires, for example measures according to forest fire prevention concept 2030 and water deficit concept forest fire. Cumulative costs until 2050 amount to 60 Mio. CHF and the cumulative effect to 100 Mio. CHF.
- 4.8.2 Forest management adapted to climate change
- Already ongoing activities, measures and instruments, etc.
- The AWN [Office for forest and natural hazards]] and the ALG [Office for agriculture and geoinformation] cooperate on various issues in order to be able to implement adaptation measures in the corresponding fields of action. Projects that contribute to climate-adapted forest management are for example:
- Sensitive sites and forest stands (project AWN, F3): Identification of forests that are likely to react especially sensitive to climate change. Development of a method to delimit sites requiring treatment and prioritizing of adaptation measures based on vulnerability of stands and scale of required tree species change. Development of basis across Switzerland for implementation of a pilot project and following transfer of method on other cantons.
- Strategy Forest Biodiversity Grisons 2035: The diversity of species and habitats is also taking into account climate change of crucial importance. Forest biodiversity directly contributes to an improved adaptive capacity of the forests in Graubünden. This is achieved by means of forest reserves (some of which are designated as genetic conservation areas for the preservation of genetic diversity) or the promotion of special woody plants to improve the mix of tree species. The Forest Biodiversity Strategy GR2035 shows the direction in which the conservation and promotion of forest biodiversity in the canton of Graubünden should develop in the coming years and decades, based on scientific principles. [...]
- Test plantings of future-proof tree species: Climate change poses major challenges for forest managers, as site conditions will change significantly over the coming decades [...
- Shifting of tree / timber line: Until today there is no certainty on where and how much the upper tree limit will shift as a cause of climate change. Also, current forest limits are shaped by former or actual types of forest management and are not directly depending on climatic conditions. In a study it should be analyzed, if naturally expanding trees can in the future protect against natural threats or in which cases these sites may threaten biodiversity and should be avoided.
- Spread of harmful organisms in forests: The number and spread of native and introduced harmful organisms is increasing, partly due to changing climatic conditions. A project is being carried out to determine how threshold values for current and future dispersal areas of harmful organisms can be determined.
The AGD defines one new measure with regard to this topic, which is based on existing measures, yet expands these significantly. The measure aims at the assessment and increase of resilience in the protective forest. Cumulative costs until 2050 amount to 33 Mio. CHF and the cumulative effect cannot be assessed.
- Bundesamt für Umwelt (BAFU) (2012): Anpassung an den Klimawandel in der Schweiz. Ziele, Herausforderungen und Handlungsfelder. Erster Teil der Strategie des Bundesrates vom 2. März 2012. Online: https://www.bafu.admin.ch/dam/bafu/de/dokumente/klima/ud-umwelt-diverses/anpassung_an_denklimawandelinderschweiz.pdf.download.pdf/anpassung_an_denklimawandelinderschweiz.pdf [accessed 25.06.2025]
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- Bundesamt für Umwelt (BAFU) (2017): Evaluation der Strategie zur Anpassung an den Klimawandel: Modul A. https://www.bafu.admin.ch/dam/bafu/de/dokumente/klima/externe-studien-berichte/Evaluation-Strategie-Anpassung-Klimawandel-ModulA.pdf.download.pdf/2017.10.24_-_B_Evaluation_Anpassung_Klima_Modul_A_2017_02_17_INTERFACE.pdf [accessed 25.06.2025]
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- Canton Grisons (2015): Klimastrategie Kanton Graubünden. Klima in Graubünden – Quo Vadis?. https://klimawandel.gr.ch/de/KW_Dokumente/ANU-418-15d_Klimastrategie_Flyer.pdf; complete climate adaptation strategy: https://klimawandel.gr.ch/de/KW_Dokumente/ANU-418-11d_Klimawandel_Arbeitspapier1.pdf [accessed 25.06.2025]
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THE ROLE OF FORESTS, NBS AND EBA IN POLICY DOCUMENTS
Forests are mentioned as an important factor for adaptation in all of these plans, yet focus varies (e.g. forest fires are highlighted in all southern countries; storms in central Europe).
Detail and prescriptiveness are often superficial. Generally, the strategies and plans at national and sub-national level do not propose quantifiable targets (e.g. with regard to forest conversions, number of plans for fire protection, surface of areas with water retention improvements). An exception are the plans elaborated in Switzerland, which provide rather detailed numbers with regard to critical protection forests or conifer forests in need of conversion due to unfavorable growing conditions in the future. At regional level these plans also attempt to assess costs and avoided costs.
Thus, a very diverse mosaic of strategies and plans exists. Forest adaptation and the forest sector are mentioned in all plans, though the detail is differing. A shift of focus can clearly be seen in all countries when comparing the various updated plans across time. All plans and strategies developed in the second or third wave have moved from groundwork and baseline vulnerability assessments to developing more clearly actions and measures to be implemented for adaptation of forests to climate change.
The aspect of climate change in other documents relevant for the forest sector has also significantly increased over time across all countries.
The adaptation techniques mentioned in plans and strategies are generally not of a nature that points towards deeper structural changes or even transformations. This suggests that the changes taken in the different countries are incremental and do not aim at questioning underlying paradigms of forestry towards more ecosystem-based approaches. None of the plans and strategies analyzed suggest a need to transform forestry and forestry practices. While all acknowledge that knowledge gaps exist and need to be addressed, the tool boxes are assumed to exist and need to be applied in a targeted way. Furthermore, while commonly accepting uncertainties and the inability to forecast developments (especially with regard to the long-term perspectives of forest cycles), all studies continue to rely on traditional planning approaches and Forest Development Plans. It seems that the different plans hardly refer to the EbA concept while an increasing number of references to NbS in recent plans can be perceived. Hence the latter allows for a more gradual integration of potentially far-reaching adaptation measures that are required.
Due to the in most cases broad context of national adaptation strategies and plans, further differentiation and specification takes place at lower levels. Often forest adaptation is mentioned more directly and more specifically linked to measures on a regional scale. Nonetheless, the detail of descriptiveness is still rather broad. Thus, a number of additional policy documents are complementing National Adaptation Strategies and National Adaptation Plans. Each member state references a number of tools in their forest programs and funding instruments. These range from increasing knowledge on climate change through a variety of research projects, forest conversion of monocultures into mixed stands, improving water retention, forest fire management, yet also include timber markets and wood processing.
An additional point is that on local level, adaptation measures are usually designed and implemented in relation to a certain (experienced) threat or risk. Commonly they address issues like storms, droughts, forest fires or pests. This involves breaking down climate change, as a concept in the more or less distant future, into manageable and relatable experiences. Thus, many adaptation measures to climate change originate directly from experiences in the past, when climate change as a topic did not play a prominent role in discourses. Often the big storm events (like in 1990 in southern Germany or in 1999 in France), drought events (like in 2003), mega forest fires (like in Les Landes in 1949) were events triggering processes, that are nowadays referenced as climate change adaptations. Additionally, this strategy reduces the uncertainty linked to climate change as a holistic concept.
Parallel and complementing, yet procedurally independent, processes exist at all levels. These are increasingly also referencing climate change adaptation measures. Thus, (sub-)national forest programs, forest laws and funding schemes for practical adaptation or research plans are referencing climate change adaptation. Especially, those that were developed since the mid 2000’s are describing adaptation measures.
Furthermore, adaptation measures have to occur on a local level and requires taking into account the specific situations on the ground. This would require a series of evaluations (e.g. with regard to identifying especially vulnerable sites). These are usually not carried out as an independent exercise, yet are in most cases integrated in other / ongoing processes (e.g. the regular forest inventory, which incorporates mid-term and long-term adaptation indicators, forest fire management plans, water management plans, mountain protection forest assessments). Thus, adaptation practices are translated from NASs and NAPs through the integration in existing strategies and plans. This is a clear indication that the policy change occurring with regard to climate change is incremental and consists of complementing activities aiming to incorporate adaptation knowledge into practices without challenging the underlying paradigm of European forestry (i.e. multifunctional forests, with a focus on economic exploitation). As the current crisis is often described as a climate crisis compounded by a biodiversity crisis, both of which are forcing the forestry actors to engage in integrating activities, this increases pressure and might lead to an overload with suboptimal solutions as a consequence. In effect this might result in too limited activities, as resources (which remain at the same level) have to be spread across numerous fields of activities. Nonetheless, precise activities on the ground and actual choice making for specific tools in specific forests is beyond the presentation of this paper and will be a task for future studies.
References to NbS in Climate Action Plans or Strategies are very rare and are generally related to issues outside of the forests (e.g. with regard to flood defense). The use of references to NbS increases in the “second” generation of action plans and strategies (especially after 2020). This corresponds to the increasing elaboration / definition of the concept in general and its growing importance in international / supranational documents since 2015.
EbA as a relevant sub-concept of NbS is not mentioned in any of the documents. Also, NbS and EbA are not mentioned in any of the other important policy documents guiding forest adaptation (e.g. forestry strategies, rural development plans).
It seems to be assumed, however, by a number of strategies and plans that any forest related adaptation activities can be automatically counted as NbS or EbA. For example, the German APA III 2020 states that “positive examples for adaptation possibilities to climate change through Nature-based solutions […] are: […] In forestry the conversion of forests contributes to establishment of climate adapted mixed forests with site appropriate and mostly autochthon tree species, which secure permanently the ecosystem functions of forest”. Such approaches apply a very broad interpretation of the concepts, which is not in line with the gradually emerging consensus and definitions elaborated at international levels.
Additionally, a number of funding mechanisms established in recent years are actively engaging with the concepts (especially NbS). Thus, the German Action Plan on Nature-based Solutions for Climate and Biodiversity presented in 2023 contains a significant amount of funding for forest activities (forest expansion, restoration and conversion of existing forests to mixed stands, financial incentives for additional climate and biodiversity actions in forests, protection of mature and old-growth beech forests).
SUGGESTED ACTIONS FOR FORESTS AS OUTLINED IN NATIONAL DOCUMENTS
Table: Summary of Climate Adaptations Strategies in the five case study countries
| Horizontal | Vertical | Sub-national | Forest cross-sectoral |
|---|
Finland | - organized sectorally and coordinated through a cross-sectoral working group steered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. - NAP prepared by a coordination group appointed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, with representatives from the Prime Minister’s Office and the relevant ministries (Ministry of Environment, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Education and Culture, Ministry of Economy and Employment, Ministry of Social Affairs and Health), research institutes (Finnish Meteorological Institute; Finnish Environment Institute and the Natural Resources Institute) and regional actors (ELY, Municipalities). - group was updated in 2017 with new expert organizations in fire and rescue services, and financial services. In addition, experts from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Defence and from other organizations participate in the meetings | - vertical coordination mechanisms within the governance system are in place and regional actors participated in the drafting of the NAP. - Representatives of municipalities (the Association of Finnish Local and Regional Authorities) and the Helsinki Metropolitan Region are also included in the coordination group. - a significant share of the practical adaptation measures is taking place in the regions or at local level. - NAP also includes a key measure of promoting local and regional adaptation studies. | Climate strategy of Karelia | - key policy instruments to promote climate adaptation are sectoral plans that detail the specific measures for mainstreaming adaptation into sectoral activities and planning processes. - objectives of the National Forest Strategy 2025 (replacing the National Forest Program) include “increasingly diverse sustainable forest management supports climate mitigation and adaptation” - Forest Tree Breeding Program 2050 (2008) includes a target for selection of suitable stock for reforestation that takes account of climate change - a program for establishing a network of genetic forest reserves - Finnish Forest Centre’s forest damage contingency plan uses appointed regional experts to assist with rapid harvesting of wind-damaged trees in order to prevent consequential damage - Legislation: Forest Act Decision of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry on the Application of the Forest Act Wilderness Act Act on Trade in Forest Reproductive Material Decree of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry on Trade in Forest Reproductive Material The Forest Damages Prevention Act Nature Conservation Act |
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France | - Ministry for Ecological and Inclusive Transition (or Ministère de la Transition écologique et solidaire) is responsible for climate adaptation. One of the directorates of the ministry is the General Directorate on Energy and Climate. The General Directorate designs and enforces policies on climate change mitigation and adaptation. Within the General Directorate, the ONERC is responsible for adaptation policy-making. - Until recently, there was no specific horizontal governance structure for adaptation in France, although a clear division of responsibilities was identified in the first NAP, and relevant sectoral ministries were involved in its development | - Regional planning by regional assemblies, local state representatives - Local adaptation planning by local councils. - some vertical integration with regard to climate adaptation through the development of SRCAE and PCAET. - SRCAE created in 2010 by the Grenelle II law. - plans were drawn up in collaboration between state and region, - include climate and energy goals, with a requirement for a section on climate adaptation. - Since 2016, the duty to develop an SRCAE replaced by new requirements for regions to adopt a Regional Plan for Sustainable Development and Territorial Equality, SRADDET. - process for local and regional governments to influence national policy-making is less detailed; however, the Grenelle consultation process, which prepared the first NAP, involved close engagement of local and regional authorities as one of five “colleges” (NGOs; state; employers; employees; territorial collectivities). The Ministry for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition has provided for the involvement of local and regional authorities in developing the revision process of the NAP, and in particular has called for the regional economic, social and environmental councils to be closely associated with the new NAP | - The Schéma Régional du Climat, de l’Air et de l’Énergie (SRCAE) d’Aquitaine was adopted by the Council of the state on 15.11.2012. - In applying the law of the new territorial organisation of the République on 7.8.2015, the « schéma régional d’aménagement, de développement durable et d’égalité des territoires » (SRADDET) substituted earlier regional-sectoral schemes (regional land use and sustainable development plan, regional intermodality plan, regional ecological coherence plan, regional climate air energy plan) and integrates regional waste management). | National forest programme (combine mitigation and adaptation of forests to climate change; Sustainable and multifunctional management of forests as nature-based solution to adapt to climate change) Pluriannual plan of regional forest development in region of Aquitaine (Necessity to provide impulses to silviculture and wood mobilization against the background of economic developments and climate change) Regional Forest Programme 2020 Nouvelle Aquitaine (Innovate to adapt silviculture and close knowledge gaps in the field of forest adaptation to climate change; define adequate development routes) Forest inventory plan for Nouvelle Aquitaine (Take into account the global warming and the hydrological necessities of forests and also other forest decisions Legislation: Framework Law on the Forest (9 July 2001); Regional Department for Agriculture and Forest (DRAF) and the Regional Center for Forest Owners (CRPF) are responsible for implementing the sustainable management documents. These documents include the forest management plan (PSG), the code of good forestry practice (CBPS) and the standard management regulations (RTG), and draw on a framework document, the Regional Plan for Forestry Management (SRGS). |
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Germany | - Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety functions as the central administration body. - interministerial working group IMA (Interministerielle Arbeitsgruppe Anpassungsstrategie) has been established to horizontally and vertically coordinate adaptation processes - endowed with executive power for policy-making (i.e. to allow for the continued development of the DAS and horizontal/vertical coordination). | - The IMA is supported by a standing committee, the StA AFK (Ständiger Ausschuss zur Anpassung an die Folgen des Klimawandels), which coordinates, especially vertically, actions between federal and Bundesländer institutions for climate adaptation. Although DAS and APA were drafted at Federal Level, these documents build on activities already undertaken by various Länder and the actions that were commonly defined and carried out at both governance levels. This shows the result of a continuous dialogue between the Länder and the Federal Government. | Climate change adaptation Strategy Baden-Württemberg 2015: embedded in national strategy - elaborated by ministry of environment, climate and energy economy - working groups of various resorts under participation of experts from administrations, science and practitioners under lead of the respective ministry - The city forest of Freiburg included climate as an equal guiding principle to other existing multifunctional goals (biodiversity, economy, recreation) in 2020 | National Forest Strategy 2050 Forest Strategy Baden-Württemberg 2050 Emergency plan for the forest Baden-Württemberg (2019) Forest inventory for city forest Freiburg Funding: Waldklimafonds GAK ANK Klimaangepassetes Waldmanagement Legislation: Forest Acts, Nature Conservation Acts, Climate Protection and adaptation Law B-W (2023) |
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Spain | - PNACC 2021-2030 was the result of a collective process of analysis, reflection and public participation. - bodies coordinating and participating are the National Climate Council (CNC), the Coordination Commission of Climate Change Policies (CCPCC) and the Environmental Sector Conference. - CNC: inter-ministerial body linking the Ministry for the Ecological Transition (through the Secretary of State for the Environment and involving different government departments) with the regions (Autonomous Communities), the Spanish Federation of Municipalities and Provinces, representatives from research institutions, social actors and NGOs. - CNC develops proposals and recommendations to define climate change policies, including the drafting of adaptation strategies. - CNC’s main role is to inform and encourage participation of policymakers and other organizations representing social and environmental interests to prepare and monitor state climate change policies and measures. - CNC horizontal coordination body for the central administration. - CCPCC is the national coordination body for climate change and adaptation. - represents all key Spanish Ministries (horizontal coordination, cooperation) and all 17 regional governments. - CCPCC adopts all Spanish adaptation planning and reporting documents. - Environmental Sector Conference: political high-level cooperation body with multilateral composition - links Ministry for the Ecological Transition, State General Administration, and Environmental Council (Administrations of the Autonomous Communities). - also acts as horizontal coordination body. | - CCPCC coordinates and collaborates with the national and regional administrations in relation to all climate change and adaptation-related matters. The CCPCC established the Impacts and Adaptation Working Group (GTIA), which is a technical working group involving the central and regional governments. The GTIA pursues coordination and integration of adaptation strategies and activities, and decides upon activities to implement the PNACC. The GTIA meets regularly, usually twice a year, and the European Commission has often participated in the meetings. The GTIA reports to the CCPCC. | - operational goals and measures incorporate input from the ESCACC30 participatory process and have been agreed within the Adaptation Working Group of the Interdepartmental Commission on Climate Change, which is made up of 27 people from different sectoral government departments and which held 25 bilateral meetings between September 2020 and May 2022. Both the operational goals and the measures will have to be integrated into the sectoral planning and programming of the ministries of the Generalitat | - Spanish Forestry Strategy horizon 2050 Estrategia Forestal Española horizonte 2050 (acknowledges the need for active adaptation of forests to climate change). - Ley de Montes 2003 (national) (Among the principles inspiring the law are: the adaptation to climate change based on a management aimed at the resilience and resistance of forests to climate change; consideration de los montes as green infrastructures to improve nature capital and their consideration in the mitigation of climate change - The Natural Resources Management Plans (PORN), the Master Plans for Use and Management (PRUG) and the Management Plans, regulated by Law 42/2007, of 13 December, on Natural Heritage and Biodiversity, are the basic instruments for the planning of natural resources and set the basic guidelines for the management of natural areas.Los Planes de Ordenación de los Recursos Naturales (PORN), los Planes Rectores de Uso y Gestión (PRUG) y los Planes de Gestión, regulados por la Ley 42/2007, de 13 de diciembre, del Patrimonio Natural y de la Biodiversidad, son los instrumentos básicos para la planificación de los recursos naturales y marcan las directrices básicas del manejo de los espacios naturales. General forest policy plan of Catalonia (the plan applies to all forest territories of Catalonia): Plan general de política forestal de Cataluña (1994). Aprobado el 13 de septiembre de 1994. Plan general de política forestal 2014-2024. Aprobado por Acuerdo GOV/92/2014, de 17 de junio. Instruments of Forest Inventories (Among the distinct objectives which have to be complied with are environmental functions: resistance and resilience to disturbances and the effects of climate change, management for a efficient use of hydrological resources, management to minimize erosion processes, management to conserve the biodiversity and the natural forest patrimony, management for improving protection of forests against GIF and for the prevention of fires and others. |
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Switzerland | - Interdepartemental working group Climate (IDA Klima) coordinates process; The IDA Klima was installed in 2008 by the federal chamber Bundesrat to secure coherent climate policy at the federal level. Th following federal actors participated: – Federal agencies: spatial development, citizen protection, environment, health, energy, agriculture, veterinary, meteorology and climatology – Eidgenössische Finanzverwaltung (EFV) – Staatssekretariat für Wirtschaft (SECO) | - technical exchange with cantons runs via individual sectors (Fachverantwortliche Bundesebene – Fachverantwortliche Kantonsebene) - only in exceptional cases cross-sectoral coordination takes place (e.g. workshop with coordination points of cantons or in the frame of overriding meetings of KVU und BPUK). - The adaptation team in BAFU can only in limited circumstances contact cantonal departments directly and is not always at height of what happens within individual sectors. - a yearly coordination conference takes place since 2015 to update on processes | - The canton of Grisons (Graubünden) defined climate change as one of six major trends in the government programme 2013-2016. - In autumn 2014 the government charged the administration to elaborate a cantonal climate strategy. - Aim: analyse challenges of climate change and coordinate actions. The climate strategy, which closely follows the federal strategy, guides risk-based and coordinated actions of the cantonal administration. - elaborated through participation of 14 departments. - «Aktionsplan Green Deal für Graubünden» aims at improving climate protection and adaptation in the canton. - initiated by the great chamber in 2019, - elaborated by the administration - aim: climate neutrality until 2050. | Waldpolitik 2020 - Visionen, Ziele und Massnahmen für eine nachhaltige Bewirtschaftung des Schweizer Waldes (2011) Forest Policy 2020 - Visions, goals and measures for the sustainable management of Swiss forests (2011) Waldpolitik: Ziele und Maßnahmen 2021-2024 (2021) Forest policy: objectives and measures 2021-2024 (2021) Waldentwicklungsplan (WEP) 2018+ Graubünden (umschreibt für das gesamte Waldareal die forstlichen Zielvorstellungen und Entwicklungsabsichten. Er enthält die allgemeingültigen Grundsätze für die Waldbewirtschaftung und –pflege) |
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Table: Suggested actions for forests as outlined in national documents
| | National level (strategy and plan) | References to NbS, EbA | Regional level |
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| Germany, B-W (Freiburg) | DAS 2008 and APA III 2020: Rationale: timely adaptation of forests necessary to reduce future risk for increased calamities and related disturbances of the timber market and forest functions. Goals: forest conversion of monocultures in site appropriate, non-risky mixed stands; adapt browsing game; reduce information deficits with private owners; silviculture: when possible aim at stable, mixed stands to increase resilience and adaptive capacity; select tree species adapted to expected changes of the site (allochthone species might be considered), as high as possible variability of potential actions; increase scientific decision support; intensify dialogue and knowledge transfer between science and forestry; further develop monitoring; national forest strategy; increase and optimize funding opportunities | One, general (in APA III 2020): positive examples for adaptation possibilities to climate change through Nature-based solutions (…) are: (…) In forestry the conversion of forests contributes to establishment of climate adapted mixed forests with site appropriate and mostly autochthon tree species, which secure permanently the ecosystem functions of forest. | Adaptation Strategy B-W 2015 1) Sustaining vital, stable and adaptive forests (climate sensitive forest management): Conserving various forest functions under a changing climate of sites 2) Measures to conserve economic use of forests 3) Measures to secure the functions of forests as a habitat: Reduction of influencing factors of humans; compensation of negative climate change effects through improvement, enlargement and new development / restoration of habitats Forest convention city forest Freiburg (2020): introduce climate change actions as one of the main forest functions; related goals: Silvicultural measures aim at i.a. maintaining the timber growth (CO2 fixation of trees), stable timber stock (constant storage of CO2), diverse natural regeneration under tree cover (regeneration and minimizing risk), structural diversity of stands (fostering of CO2 storage in soil, humus, stand levels), sustainable production and use of timber aiming (substitution effect of long-term use) |
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Spain, Catalunya, Solsones | PNACC (2021-2030): - Increase the knowledge on the impacts of climate change on the forest resources, including wood and timber products and taking into account effects on ecosystem services and goods - Integrate the adaptation to climate change in forest planning and management to guarantee the provision of ecosystem services and goods - Integrate the adaptation to climate change in the planning of hunting and fishing activities - Prevent the desertification and degradation of land and support the restoration of degraded land following adaptive criteria - Promote actions against forest fires through integrated plans of prevention and fight against fires, building on nature-based solutions in the context of climate change and adaptation to it | Nature based solutions are referenced 10 times in the PNACC. These references are not made with regard to forestry and forest management, yet refer to the prevention of desertification, flood prevention or ecological restoration. ESCACC 2030: Nature-based solutions are included in the plan (12 references), though not directly linked to forest management. | ESCACC 2030: The incorporation of adaptation into sectoral policy planning is a legal mandate prescribed by Art.10.3 of Law 16/2017 of 1 August on climate change Operational goals natural systems with regard to forests: Biodiversity 1. Address loss of biodiversity and adaptation to climate change simultaneously and synergistically. 2. Improve knowledge of the impacts of climate change on biodiversity in Catalonia and in particular on the structure and functioning of ecosystems. 3. Increase the resilience of the territorial fabric through the development of green infrastructures and large-scale biodiversity restoration. 4. Achieve effective management of protected natural areas that includes climate change adaptation criteria. Forests and Forestry 1. Coordinate forestry planning with water planning, emphasising the role of forests in the regulation of the water cycle. 2. Define and promote forest management that increases the resistance and resilience of forests to the impacts of climate change (especially forest fires), taking into account biodiversity conservation and the specific characteristics of forest stands. 3. Encourage co-responsibility in the implementation of measures to adapt to climate change (forest and agricultural land stewardship, silvo-pastoralism in Mediterranean mountains, associations of forest owners, etc.). 4. Identify and protect forests where management based on free evolution and forest maturity should be prioritised in order to boost resilience and adaptation to climate change. 5. Enhance the market for local forestry products and the bioeconomy. 6. Deepen the understanding of the impact of climate change on forest resources and ecosystem services. Operational goals for territories Mountains 1. Promote viable land management that can be applied on a larger scale, that makes mountain territories more resilient to climate change and that takes advantage of the opportunities opened up by the new climate scenario. 1.1. Facilitate and organise the return of agriculture to mountain areas. 1.2. Promote intelligent management of forest land, based on primary sector activity or on nature-based solutions, depending on the conditions of the territory. 1.3. Facilitate the incorporation of new residents into the agricultural, livestock and forestry sector. 1.4. Increase the added value of agricultural, livestock and forestry products produced in mountain areas. 2. Reduce the vulnerability of mountain populations, socio-economic sectors and ecosystems to the impacts of climate change. 3. Improve knowledge of the impacts of climate change in mountain territories, promoting the training and awareness needed to manage change and establishing new governance systems that allow for the development of more integrated policies in these territories. Multisectoral adaptation actions Biodiversitat, objectiu operatiu (OP) i mesura (M): (OP1) Abordar simultàniament i de manera sinèrgica la pèrdua de biodiversitat i l’adaptació al canvi climàtic. (M1.4) Prioritzar la integració de les solucions basades en la natura i la biodiversitat en les polítiques sectorials com a mecanisme per a l’adaptació al canvi climàtic. |
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France, Nouvelle-Aquitaine, Les Landes | NAS (Stratégie nationale d’adaptation au changement climatique), was adopted in December 2006 National Climate Change Adaptation Plan was adopted in July 2011 Objectives: a) Protection against the risks of catastrophes linked to climate change conditions, field of actions: Prevention and resilience; b) Strenghten the resilience of ecosystems to allow for an adaptation to a changing climate and support through ecosystem capacities (services) the social adaptation to a changing climate, field of actions: Nature and environment; c) Strengthen the resilience of economic activities to the evolution of climate change, field of actions: economic branches. | None | SRADDET 2020: Faced with this critical situation, the SRADDET sets out a principle of inventiveness and taking account of local situations to mitigate the impacts of climate change, adapt and enable people to live with the risk. Protecting forest resources and adapting them to climate change, local strategies for adapting to retreating coastlines, and reducing the vulnerability of territories to risks are among the priority objectives of the SRADDET. Objective 61: To strengthen the protection of forest resources against the various risks increased by climate change. In line with the Forêt bois Nouvelle-aquitaine regional programme, this objective is achieved by:• La limitation de la dispersion de l’urbanisation en bordure des massifs forestiers en considérant le risque incendie futur (réchauffement climatique); - Limiting the spread of urban development on the edges of forest areas, bearing in mind the future risk of fire (due to global warming); - Integrating fire risk into the spatial reorganisation of urban development for the relocation of activities following changes in the coastline; - Investment in research and development to prevent health risks and adapt species (tree species) with the aim of a resilient and diversified forest that maximises carbon storage (in situ and value chain); Objectif 62: define and apply local adaptation strategies with a focus on anticipating risks. |
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Switzerland, Graubünden | A) On 2 March 2012, the Federal Council adopted the strategy for adaptation to climate change in Switzerland. This sets out the goals and principles for adaptation at the Federal level, identifies the areas for action in nine sectors and describes the cross-sectoral challenges. The adaptation strategy is being coordinated within the interdepartmental committee on the climate (IDA Klima), led by the Federal Office of the Environment (FOEN / BAFU) (Anpassung an den Klimawandel in der Schweiz - Erster Teil der Strategie des Bundesrates vom 2. März 2012: Ziele, Herausforderungen und Handlungsfelder. Erster Teil der Strategie des Bundesrates vom 2. März 2012). B) Adaptation to climate change in Switzerland - Action Plan 2014–2019: Actin Plan 2014–2019. Second part of the governmental strategy 9. April 2014. 2014 C) On 19 August 2020, the Federal Council adopted an action plan on the implementation of the adaptation strategy in the period 2020–25. This builds on the first action plan for the period 2014–19 and implements many of the measures contained in it. Third part (Action Plan 2020-2025): The action plan 2020-2025 covers 75 measures on federal level. 63 of these measures are activities in the sectors water, dealing with natural disasters (threats), soil conservation, agriculture, forestry, energy, housing, tourism, biodiversity management, health (humans and animals) and regional development. 12 measures are cross-sectoral in nature. They are especially directed to improve knowledge basis, coordination, and supporting the implementation of the goals of the adaptation strategy. Measures defined for the forestry sector: - Minimising the mass development of bark beetles and other pests and the corresponding damages. - Identification of suitable stands, locations for the cultivation of conifers. - Complement and convey principles of climate relevant forest development. - Consolidation and securing of quality of forest fire warning. - Improving of early warning in the cantons. - Reducing the risk of wild forest fires through appropriate forest management (development of basics). - Consolidating the tool for implementation of the research programme forests and climate change (Wald und Klimawandel). - Ecosystem services of urban trees and forests to be secured by climate adaptation. - Actualisation of the basis for protection forests (Schutzwald) management with relevant adaptation aspects. - Revision of the guideline on storm damages. - Investigation of the forest uses threatend by climate change. - Updating and adapting of planning documents of forest management to climate change. | None | Climate Strategy (2015): https://klimawandel.gr.ch/de/klimastrategie/Seiten/strategie.aspx Climate Action Plan (2021): https://klimawandel.gr.ch/de/green-deal/Seiten/aktionsplan.aspx The ‘Green Deal Action Plan for Grisons’ (AGD) is a impulse programme to promote climate protection and climate adaptation in the canton of Grisons. Initiated by the Grand Council in 2019, the AGD drawn up by the administration is geared towards the goal of becoming climate-neutral by 2050. Measures with regard to forests: 4.8.1 Strengthen the management of natural hazards (forest fires, risk overview and permafrost) Activities, measures, instruments, etc. already underway. - Development priority 8.1 in the 2021-2024 government programme: Improved protection against natural hazards. Integral risk management for natural hazards is established in Graubünden and allows well-founded and risk-based decisions to be made regarding the defence measures to be taken: (...) Strengthening the resilience of protective forests through basic work (...), - With the partial revision of the Cantonal Forest Act (KWaG) and the drafting of a new ordinance on integral risk management (IRMV), both of which came into force on 1 January 2021, the canton of Grisons has a state-of-the-art legal and technical basis (...) 4.8.2 Climate-adapted forest management Ongoing activities, measures, instruments, etc. (...) The AWN and the ALG work together on various issues in order to implement adaptation measures in the relevant fields of action. Projects that contribute to climate-adapted forest management include, for example - Sensitive sites and stands (AWN project, F3): Identification of forests that are likely to react particularly sensitively to climate change. Development of a method for determining / delimiting stands in need of treatment and for prioritising adaptation measures based on the threat to the stands and the extent of the necessary change in tree species. Development of a nationwide basis for the implementation of the pilot project and the subsequent transfer of the method to other cantons. - Grisons Forest Biodiversity Strategy 2035: The diversity of species and habitats in the forest is also of crucial importance with regard to climate change. Forest biodiversity contributes directly to the improved adaptability of Grisons' forests by means of forest reserves (some of which are designated as genetic conservation areas to preserve genetic diversity) or the promotion of special woody plants to improve the mix of tree species. The Forest Biodiversity Strategy GR2035 shows the direction in which the conservation and promotion of forest biodiversity in the canton of Graubünden should develop in the coming years and decades, based on scientific principles. (...) - Test planting of future-proof tree species: Climate change poses major challenges for forest managers, as site conditions will change significantly over the coming decades (...) - Shift in the treeline: To date, there is no reliable information on where and to what extent the upper treeline will shift as a result of ongoing climate change. In many places, today's forest boundaries are also characterised by former or current forms of management and are not directly dependent on the prevailing climatic conditions. An analysis examines whether naturally growing areas could serve as protection against natural hazards in the future, or where growing areas jeopardise biodiversity and should be avoided if possible. - Spread of harmful organisms in forests: The number and spread of native and introduced harmful organisms is increasing, partly due to changing climatic conditions. A project aims to determine how threshold values for current and future areas of spread of harmful organisms can be determined |
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Finland, North Karelia | In Finland, a national adaptation strategy (NAS) was adopted in 2005, as an independent element of the wider National Energy and Climate Strategy. The evaluation process resulted in a government resolution and publication of a new national climate adaptation framework in November 2014, known as the National Climate Change Adaptation Plan 20225 (NAP). This NAP replaced the 2005 NAS. Finland's Climate Act (approved on 6 March 2015) stipulates that the Government approves long-term and medium-term strategic mitigation plans and announces it will approve a national plan on adaptation at least every ten years. Finland's National Climate Change Adaptation Plan 2022: Nature-based Solutions gained a more prominent role in the 2022 adaptation plan. The concept was mentioned in a number of objectives and was assigned an own objective complemented by two actions. “Objective 12: Nature-based solutions: Action 12.1 Developing nature-based solutions and up-to-date legislation and guidance material and promote planning for stormwater management. Action 12.2 Mainstream organic water management practices in agriculture and forestry” (NAP 2022, p. 66). | In all sectors, knowledge about the costs and benefits of innovative nature-based solutions is lacking. In assessing nature-based solutions impacts and benefits that are not limited to adaptation need to be considered. They may include safeguarding biodiversity, increasing recreational opportunities or positive health impacts” (Publications of the Government ´s analysis, assessment and research activities 2022:61: Adaptation to climate change in Finland - Current state and future prospects) | - |
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